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{{Short description|An Aboriginal people of South Australia}} |
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{{use dmy dates|date=March 2018}} |
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2018}} |
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{{use Australian English|date=April 2020}} |
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'''Nukunu''' are an [[indigenous Australian]] people of [[South Australia]], living around the [[Spencer Gulf]] which since British settlement has developed to contain the cities of [[Port Pirie, South Australia|Port Pirie]] and [[Port Augusta, South Australia|Port Augusta]]. |
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'''Nukunu''' are an [[Aboriginal Australian]] people of [[South Australia]], living around the [[Spencer Gulf]] area. In the years after [[British colonisation of South Australia]], the area was developed to contain the cities of [[Port Pirie, South Australia|Port Pirie]] and [[Port Augusta, South Australia|Port Augusta]]. |
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==Name== |
==Name== |
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Both the [[ |
Both the [[Ngaiawang]] people of the [[Lower Murray]] and the Adelaide region's [[Kaurna people|Kaurna]] used their variant pronunciation for the Nukuni, ''nokunno'' and ''nokuna'', to signify an assassin, a mythical figure who was given to roaming about at night in search of people to kill.{{sfn|Tindale|1974|p=216}}{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}} |
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==Language== |
==Language== |
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{{main|Nukunu language}} |
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[[Nukunu language]], together with [[Ngadjuri language|Ngadjuri]], with which it has an 90% overlap, is broadly classified by [[Luise Hercus]], following the taxonomy of [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]], as belonging to the Miru cluster of the [[Thura-Yura languages]].{{sfn|Hercus|1992|pp=1–2}} |
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[[Nukunu language]], together with [[Ngadjuri language|Ngadjuri]], with which it has a 90% overlap, is broadly classified by [[Luise Hercus]], following the taxonomy of [[Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)|Wilhelm Schmidt]], as belonging to the Miru cluster of the [[Thura-Yura languages]].{{sfn|Hercus|1992|pp=1–2}} |
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==Country== |
==Country== |
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[[File:Nukunu.JPG|thumb|Nukunu |
[[File:Nukunu.JPG|thumb|Traditional lands of the Nukunu people]] |
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According to [[Norman Tindale]]'s calculations, the Nukunu possessed approximately {{convert|2,200|mi2|km2}} of tribal land. This lay on the eastern side of [[Spencer Gulf]], from a point just north of the mouth of the [[Broughton River (South Australia)|Broughton River]] and the vicinity of [[Crystal Brook, South Australia|Crystal Brook]] to [[Port Augusta]]. Their eastern extension ran to [[Melrose, South Australia|Melrose]], [[Mount Remarkable]], [[Gladstone, South Australia|Gladstone]], and [[Quorn, South Australia|Quorn]], and they were also present at [[Baroota]].{{sfn|Tindale|1974|p=216}} |
According to [[Norman Tindale]]'s calculations, the Nukunu possessed approximately {{convert|2,200|mi2|km2}} of tribal land. This lay on the eastern side of [[Spencer Gulf]], from a point just north of the mouth of the [[Broughton River (South Australia)|Broughton River]] and the vicinity of [[Crystal Brook, South Australia|Crystal Brook]] to [[Port Augusta]]. Their eastern extension ran to [[Melrose, South Australia|Melrose]], [[Mount Remarkable]], [[Gladstone, South Australia|Gladstone]], and [[Quorn, South Australia|Quorn]], and they were also present at [[Baroota]].{{sfn|Tindale|1974|p=216}} |
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===Native title=== |
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In 2019, the Nukunu people were granted [[Native title in Australia|native title]] over [[Port Pirie]] and part of the [[Flinders Ranges]]. On 3 February 2022, after a protracted 28-year dispute over boundaries, they were also given title over a large area east of Port Augusta by a sitting of the [[Federal Court of Australia]]. Only one of the original claimants, [[Aboriginal elder| elder]] Lindsay Thomas, was still alive. This area borders an area granted to the [[Barngarla people]]<ref>{{cite web | last1=Roberts | first1=Georgia |first2=Gillian | last2=Aeria| title=Nukunu people win native title fight after 28 years of struggle | website=ABC News| publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=3 February 2022 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-03/nukunu-native-title-claim-resolved-after-28-years/100801320 | access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> in September 2021. All three court sittings and decisions were presided over by Justice [[Natalie Charlesworth]].<ref>{{cite web | last1=Roberts | first1=Georgia| first2=Declan |last2=Gooch | title=Barngarla people granted native title over Port Augusta after 25-year fight | website=ABC News| publisher= [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | date=24 September 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-24/barngarla-native-title-determination-port-augusta/100489240 | access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> |
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==Social customs== |
==Social customs== |
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The Nukunu were the |
The Nukunu were the southeasternmost tribe that adopted not only circumcision but also [[subincision]]{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=23}} as part of their rite of initiating young males into full tribal status. The Nukunu took pride in being "ritual purists".{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}}{{sfn|Jauncey|2004|p=12}} |
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[[A. P. Elkin]] established that the Nukunu represented the most |
[[A. P. Elkin]] established that the Nukunu represented the most southeasterly tribe maintaining a matrilineal [[Moiety (kinship)|moiety system]], involving two marriage moieties, the ''Mathari'' and the ''Kararru''. The system was essentially akin to that existing among the [[Barngarla people|Barngarla]], [[Adnyamathanha]] and [[Wailpi]].{{sfn|Elkin|1938a|pp=421,427–439}}{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}} |
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==Culture== |
==Culture== |
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The Nukunu land was full of sacred sites, and formed the starting point for the longest [[songline]] registered in Australia, the ''Urumbula'' songline |
The Nukunu land was full of [[Aboriginal sacred site|sacred sites]], and formed the starting point for the longest [[songline]] registered in Australia, the ''Urumbula'' songline. This songline extends from a [[axis mundi|large tree]], representing also the [[Milky Way]], said to stand near the present day Port Augusta Hospital (Point Augusta) northwards right to the [[Gulf of Carpentaria]]. The story cycle dealt with the wanderings of the [[western quoll]]. The [[Arrernte people|Arerrnte]] central desert people retain details of the mythical events that are located far south, in Nukunu tribal lands.{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=13}} |
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==History of contact== |
==History of contact== |
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Colonisation of the area began in 1849, and a late estimate is that the tribe consisted of between 50 and 100 people. Before this, it is thought that the Nukunu had been ravaged by the spread of [[smallpox]] from the [[Murray River]], some two decades earlier.{{sfn|Valentine|1886|p=136}} The subsequent transformation of the land for pastoral and wheat-growing purposes devastated the Nukunu.{{sfn|Eklund|2012|p=101}} |
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Peter Ferguson and [[William Younghusband]] took up a "[[Sheep station|run]]" of some {{convert|560|mi2|km2}} from ''Thalpiri'', now known as [[Port Pirie]], to [[Crystal Brook, South Australia|Crystal Brook]], which was stocked with 25,000 sheep and 3400 cattle.{{sfn|Ferguson|2012}} In late June 1852 Ferguson rounded up seven Nukunu after pursuing them to retrieve 54 sheep that had been taken from his flocks and they were remanded at [[Clare, South Australia|Clare County Court]] for trial in Adelaide, but were released after two months when no plaintiffs appeared to assist the prosecution.{{sfn|Cockburn|1974|pp=142–143}} In 1854, after cattle had been pilfered, Ferguson, together with his stockmen, killed a group of local Aboriginal people at Crystal Brook.{{sfn|Eklund|2012|p=101}} Writing in 1880, J. C. Valentine stated that only eight Nukunu had survived these radical upheavals, five men and three women; the rest, in his view, had expired from [[phthisis pulmonalis|phthisis]].{{sfn|Valentine|1886|p=136}} |
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This enclosure of their tribal lands for pastoralism led to the dispossession, and decimation,{{sfn|Krichauff|2017|p=41}} of the Nukunu from the end of the 1840s onwards, and small remnants took refuge in scattered camps around [[Orroroo, South Australia|Orroroo]], [[Melrose, South Australia|Melrose]], [[Wilmington, South Australia|Wilmington]], [[Stirling North, South Australia|Stirling North]], and Baroota.{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}}{{sfn|Jauncey|2004|p=12}} Some Nukunu managed to keep alive their direct attachment to their traditional lands by remaining at [[Port Germein, South Australia|Port Germein]], the Baroota reserve set aside for them, and at [[Port Augusta]].{{sfn|Krichauff|2017|p=41}} With their fragmentation and dispersion, they could no longer adhere to their rigorous rules, and subsequently intermarried with people with [[Narungga]], Barngarla and [[Wirangu]] descent, while maintaining a keen sense of their Nukunu identity.{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}} |
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This enclosure of their tribal lands for pastoralism led to the dispossession, and decimation,{{sfn|Krichauff|2017|p=41}} of the Nukunu from the end of the 1840s onwards, and small remnants took refuge in scattered camps around [[Orroroo, South Australia|Orroroo]], [[Melrose, South Australia|Melrose]], [[Wilmington, South Australia|Wilmington]], [[Stirling North, South Australia|Stirling North]], and Baroota.{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}}{{sfn|Jauncey|2004|p=12}} Some Nukunu managed to keep alive their direct attachment to their traditional lands by remaining at [[Port Germein, South Australia|Port Germein]], the Baroota reserve set aside for them, and at [[Port Augusta]].{{sfn|Krichauff|2017|p=41}} With their fragmentation and dispersion, they could no longer adhere to their rigorous rules, and subsequently intermarried with people with [[Narungga]], Barngarla and [[Wirangu people|Wirangu]] descent, while maintaining a keen sense of their Nukunu identity.{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}} |
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==Alternative names== |
==Alternative names== |
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{{colbegin}} |
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* ''Wongaidja''{{efn|Herrcus comments:'Black calls the language 'Wongaidya', but this is simply his rendering of ''wangkatya'' the present tense form of the verb 'to speak'.'{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=9}}}} |
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* '' |
* ''Barutadura'' (men of [[Baroota]]){{sfn|Tindale|1974|p=216}} |
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* ''Doora''{{sfn|Valentine|1886|p=136}} |
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* ''Nukunnu'' |
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* ''Eura'' (generic [[ethnonym]] for several tribes) |
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* ''Nugunu'' |
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* ''Nookoona, Nukunna, Noocoona,{{sfn|Hack|Taplin|1879|p=64}} Nokunna'' |
* ''Nookoona, Nukunna, Noocoona'',{{sfn|Hack|Taplin|1879|p=64}} ''Nokunna'' |
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* ''Nu-guna'' |
* ''Nu-guna'' |
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* '' |
* ''Nugunu'' |
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* ''Nukuna'' ([[Barngarla people|Barngarla]] [[exonym]]){{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=11}} |
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* ''Tura.'' (''tura'' = man) |
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* ''Nukunnu'' |
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* ''Pukunna'' (misprint) |
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* ''Tura'' (man) |
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* ''Tyura'' |
* ''Tyura'' |
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* ''Warra'' (name of language) |
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* ''Doora''{{sfn|Valentine|1886|p=136}} |
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* ''Wongaidja''{{efn|Hercus comments: "Black calls the language 'Wongaidya', but this is simply his rendering of ''wangkatya'' the present tense form of the verb 'to speak'." {{harv|Hercus|1992|p=9}}}} |
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* ''Eura.'' (generic [[ethnonym]] for several tribes) |
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{{colend}} |
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* ''Warra (name of language) |
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* ''Barutadura'' (men of [[Baroota]]).{{sfn|Tindale|1974|p=216}} |
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==Some words== |
==Some words== |
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* ''kutnyu'' (white man/ghost){{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=21}}{{efn|In Valentine this is given as ''bingera''. {{harv|Valentine|1886|p=138}}}} |
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* ''kudla.'' (kangaroo) |
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* ''ngami/ngangkayi'' (mother, breast, Milky Way){{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=24}}{{efn|Valentine gives ''mungier''. {{harv|Valentine|1886|p=138}}}} |
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* ''gardley.''(tame dog) |
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* ''nhantu'' ([[western grey kangaroo]]){{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=25}}{{efn|Valentine gave ''kudla''. {{harv|Valentine|1886|p=138}}}} |
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* ''quana.'' (wild dog) |
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* ''nyilka'' (dog); ''katli'' (dog, wild or tame); ''wilka'' (dog, dingo){{sfn|Hercus|1992|pp=20,26,31,40}}{{efn|Valentine gave ''gardley'' for tame dog, and ''quana'' for wild dog. {{harv|Valentine|1886|p=138}}}} |
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* ''yartli.'' (father){{efn|Valentine wrote ''ludlaw''. Luise Hercus commenting on this text wrote:'There is a brief vocabulary from Mount Remarkable, which is in the heart of Nukunu country, but Curr states (2:136) that he got the material from a Mr J. C. Valentine who had himself got it at second hand from 'a gentleman well acquainted with the tribe', and he complains of the manuscript being indistinct There is no question that it is a vocabulary of the same language as recorded by O'Grady and by Hercus and by its early date it helps to validate Nukunu. The person who wrote down the vocabulary had trouble hearing certain sounds and used an inconsistent anglicised transcription, which is difficult to interpret: e.g. he wrote 'uree' for''yuṛi''[ 'ear'), 'ounga' for''yunga''('elder brother') and 'ludlaw' for''yartli'' ('father' (i.e. 'man')).' Hercus also gives ''maama'', var. ''mamara'' for father.{{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=9,21}}}} |
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* ''yartli'' (father){{efn|Valentine wrote ''ludlaw''. Luise Hercus commenting on this text wrote: 'There is a brief vocabulary from Mount Remarkable, which is in the heart of Nukunu country, but Curr states (2:136) that he got the material from a Mr J. C. Valentine who had himself got it at second hand from "a gentleman well acquainted with the tribe", and he complains of the manuscript being indistinct. There is no question that it is a vocabulary of the same language as recorded by O'Grady and by Hercus and by its early date it helps to validate Nukunu. The person who wrote down the vocabulary had trouble hearing certain sounds and used an inconsistent anglicised transcription, which is difficult to interpret: e.g. he wrote "uree" for ''yuṛi'' ("ear"), "ounga" for ''yunga'' ("elder brother") and "ludlaw" for ''yartli'' ("father" (i.e. "man")).' Hercus also gives ''maama'', var. ''mamara'' for father. {{harv|Hercus|1992|pp=9, 21}}}} |
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* ''mungier.'' (mother) |
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* ''kutnyu'' (whiteman/ghost){{sfn|Hercus|1992|p=21}} {{efn|In Valentine this is given as ''bingera.''{{sfn|Valentine|1886|p=138}}}} |
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==Notable Nukunu people== |
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==Notes== |
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* [[Jared Thomas]], author, academic and museum curator |
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==Footnotes== |
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{{notelist}} |
{{notelist}} |
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==References== |
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===Citations=== |
===Citations=== |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==Sources== |
===Sources=== |
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{{refbegin| |
{{refbegin|30em}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Vocabularies of three South Australian languages—Wirrung, Narrinyeri and Wongaidya |
*{{Cite journal | title = Vocabularies of three South Australian languages—Wirrung, Narrinyeri and Wongaidya |
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| last = Black | first = J. M. |
| last = Black | first = J. M. |
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Line 64: | Line 77: | ||
| year = 1917 | volume = 41 | pages = 1–8 |
| year = 1917 | volume = 41 | pages = 1–8 |
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| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/109628#page/13/mode/1up |
| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/109628#page/13/mode/1up |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{cite book| title = Pastoral Pioneers of South Australia |
*{{cite book| title = Pastoral Pioneers of South Australia |
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| last = Cockburn | first = Rodney |
| last = Cockburn | first = Rodney | year = 1974 |
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| author-link = Rodney Cockburn |
| author-link = Rodney Cockburn |
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| year = 1974 |
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| editor-last = Aldersey | editor-first = A. Dorothy |
| editor-last = Aldersey | editor-first = A. Dorothy |
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| volume = Volume 1 |
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| publisher = Lynton Publications | location = Blackwood |
| publisher = Lynton Publications | location = Blackwood |
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| volume = 1 |
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| url = http://history.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/ncb/documents/PASTORAL%20PIONEERS%20OF%20SOUTH%20AUSTRALIA%20VOL.1.pdf |
| url = http://history.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/ncb/documents/PASTORAL%20PIONEERS%20OF%20SOUTH%20AUSTRALIA%20VOL.1.pdf |
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}} |
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| format = PDF |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Aboriginal bird names -South Australia Part 1 |
*{{Cite journal | title = Aboriginal bird names -South Australia Part 1 |
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| last = Condon | first = H. T. |
| last = Condon | first = H. T. |
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Line 83: | Line 92: | ||
| location = Adelaide |
| location = Adelaide |
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| date = July 1955a | volume = 21 | issue = 6/7 | pages = 74–88 |
| date = July 1955a | volume = 21 | issue = 6/7 | pages = 74–88 |
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| url = https://birdssa.asn.au/images/saopdfs/Volume21/1955V21P074.pdf |
| url = https://birdssa.asn.au/images/saopdfs/Volume21/1955V21P074.pdf }} |
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| format = PDF |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Aboriginal bird names - South Australia Part 2 |
*{{Cite journal | title = Aboriginal bird names - South Australia Part 2 |
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| last = Condon | first = H. T. |
| last = Condon | first = H. T. |
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Line 92: | Line 98: | ||
| journal = [[South Australian Ornithologist]] |
| journal = [[South Australian Ornithologist]] |
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| location = Adelaide |
| location = Adelaide |
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| date = October 1955b | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 91–98 |
| date = October 1955b | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 91–98 |
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| url = https://birdssa.asn.au/images/saopdfs/Volume21/1955V21P091.pdf |
| url = https://birdssa.asn.au/images/saopdfs/Volume21/1955V21P091.pdf }} |
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| format = PDF |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{cite book| title = Mining Towns: Making a Living, Making a Life |
*{{cite book| title = Mining Towns: Making a Living, Making a Life |
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| last = Eklund | first = Erik |
| last = Eklund | first = Erik | year = 2012 |
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| year = 2012 |
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| publisher = [[University of New South Wales Press]] |
| publisher = [[University of New South Wales Press]] |
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| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GS4UM2kgwLYC&pg=PT101 |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GS4UM2kgwLYC&pg=PT101 |
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| isbn = 978-1-742-24111-1 |
| isbn = 978-1-742-24111-1 |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Social organisation of South Australian tribes |
*{{Cite journal | title = Social organisation of South Australian tribes |
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| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
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Line 110: | Line 111: | ||
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
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| date = September 1931 | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–73 |
| date = September 1931 | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–73 |
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| jstor = 40327353 |
| doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4461.1931.tb00022.x | jstor = 40327353 |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia |
*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia |
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| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
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Line 118: | Line 118: | ||
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
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| date = June 1938a | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 419–452 |
| date = June 1938a | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 419–452 |
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| jstor = 40327684 |
| doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4461.1938.tb00434.x | jstor = 40327684 |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia (Continued) |
*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia (Continued) |
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| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
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Line 126: | Line 125: | ||
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
||
| date = September 1938b | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–78 |
| date = September 1938b | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–78 |
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| jstor = 40327699 |
| doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4461.1938.tb00216.x | jstor = 40327699 |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia (Continued) |
*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia (Continued) |
||
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
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Line 134: | Line 132: | ||
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
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| date = December 1939 | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 196–234 |
| date = December 1939 | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 196–234 |
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| jstor = 40327736 |
| doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4461.1939.tb00276.x | jstor = 40327736 |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia (Continued) |
*{{Cite journal | title = Kinship in South Australia (Continued) |
||
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
| last = Elkin | first = A. P. |
||
Line 142: | Line 139: | ||
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
| journal = [[Oceania (journal)|Oceania]] |
||
| date = June 1940 | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 369–388 |
| date = June 1940 | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 369–388 |
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| jstor = 40327864 |
| doi = 10.1002/j.1834-4461.1940.tb00302.x | jstor = 40327864 |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite journal | title = Notes on native tribe formerly resident at Orroroo, South Australia |
*{{Cite journal | title = Notes on native tribe formerly resident at Orroroo, South Australia |
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| last = Gray | first = J. |
| last = Gray | first = J. |
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Line 150: | Line 146: | ||
| year = 1930 | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–6 |
| year = 1930 | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–6 |
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| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/132605#page/7/mode/1up |
| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/132605#page/7/mode/1up |
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}} |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{Cite book| chapter = The Mount Remarkable Tribe |
*{{Cite book| chapter = The Mount Remarkable Tribe |
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| last1 = Hack | first1 = Bedford |
| last1 = Hack | first1 = Bedford |
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Line 159: | Line 154: | ||
| title = Folklore, manners, customs and languages of the South Australian aborigines |
| title = Folklore, manners, customs and languages of the South Australian aborigines |
||
| publisher = E Spiller, Acting Government Printer | location = Adelaide |
| publisher = E Spiller, Acting Government Printer | location = Adelaide |
||
| url = https://archive.org/download/folkloremannersc00taplrich/folkloremannersc00taplrich.pdf |
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| pages = 64–66,142–152 |
| pages = 64–66,142–152 |
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}} |
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| url = https://archive.org/download/folkloremannersc00taplrich/folkloremannersc00taplrich.pdf |
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| format = PDF |
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| ref = harv |
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}} |
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*{{cite book| title = A Nukunu Dictionary |
*{{cite book| title = A Nukunu Dictionary |
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| last = Hercus | first = Luise Anna |
| last = Hercus | first = Luise Anna | year = 1992 |
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| author-link = Luise Hercus |
| author-link = Luise Hercus |
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| year = 1992 |
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| publisher = [[Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies|AIATSIS]] |
| publisher = [[Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies|AIATSIS]] |
||
| url = http://learning.mobilelanguageteam.com.au/quickref-nuk/Hercus1992-NukunuDictionary.pdf |
| url = http://learning.mobilelanguageteam.com.au/quickref-nuk/Hercus1992-NukunuDictionary.pdf |
||
| format = PDF |
|||
| isbn = 978-0-646-10460-7 |
| isbn = 978-0-646-10460-7 |
||
}} |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite book| title = Bardi Grubs and Frog Cakes: South Australian Words |
*{{cite book| title = Bardi Grubs and Frog Cakes: South Australian Words |
||
| last = Jauncey | first = Dorothy |
| last = Jauncey | first = Dorothy | year = 2004 |
||
| year = 2004 |
|||
| publisher = Oxford University Press |
| publisher = Oxford University Press |
||
| isbn = 978-0-195-51770-5 |
| isbn = 978-0-195-51770-5 |
||
}} |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite book| title = Memory, Place and Aboriginal-Settler History: Understanding Australians' Consciousness of the Colonial Past |
*{{cite book| title = Memory, Place and Aboriginal-Settler History: Understanding Australians' Consciousness of the Colonial Past |
||
| last = Krichauff | first = Skye |
| last = Krichauff | first = Skye | year = 2017 |
||
| year = 2017 |
|||
| publisher = Anthem Press |
| publisher = Anthem Press |
||
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nk5GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nk5GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |
||
| isbn = 978-1-783-08682-5 |
| isbn = 978-1-783-08682-5 |
||
}} |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{Cite journal | title = Divisions of the South Australian Aborigines |
*{{Cite journal | title = Divisions of the South Australian Aborigines |
||
| last = Mathews | first = R. H. |
| last = Mathews | first = R. H. |
||
| author-link = |
| author-link = Robert Hamilton Mathews |
||
| journal = [[American Philosophical Society|Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]] |
| journal = [[American Philosophical Society|Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]] |
||
| year = 1900 | volume = 39 | issue = 161 | pages = 78–91 |
| year = 1900 | volume = 39 | issue = 161 | pages = 78–91 |
||
| jstor = 983545 |
| jstor = 983545 |
||
}} |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{Cite book| title = A vocabulary, and outline of the grammatical structure of the Murray River language: spoken by the natives of South Australia, from Wellington on the Murray, as far as the Rufus |
*{{Cite book| title = A vocabulary, and outline of the grammatical structure of the Murray River language: spoken by the natives of South Australia, from Wellington on the Murray, as far as the Rufus |
||
| last = Moorhouse | first = M. |
| last = Moorhouse | first = M. | year = 1846 |
||
| author-link = Matthew Moorhouse |
| author-link = Matthew Moorhouse |
||
| year = 1846 |
|||
| publisher = Andrew Murray |
| publisher = Andrew Murray |
||
| url = https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/24872/1/Moorhouse_vocab_A3.pdf |
| url = https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/24872/1/Moorhouse_vocab_A3.pdf |
||
}} |
|||
| format = PDF |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{cite web| title = S.A. Northern Pioneers: P. Ferguson |
*{{cite web| title = S.A. Northern Pioneers: P. Ferguson |
||
| publisher = [[State Library of South Australia]] |
|||
| year = 2012 |
| year = 2012 |
||
| publisher = [[State Library of South Australia]] |
|||
| url = http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=77&c=5074 |
| url = http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=77&c=5074 |
||
| ref = {{harvid|Ferguson|2012}} |
| ref = {{harvid|Ferguson|2012}} |
||
}} |
}} |
||
*{{Cite book| title = Outlines of a grammar, vocabulary, and phraseology |
*{{Cite book| title = Outlines of a grammar, vocabulary, and phraseology of the Aboriginal language of South Australia spoken by the native in and for some distance around Adelaide |
||
| last1 = Teichelmann | first1 = Christian Gottlieb |
| last1 = Teichelmann | first1 = Christian Gottlieb |
||
| last2 = Schürmann | first2 = Clamor Wilhelm |
| last2 = Schürmann | first2 = Clamor Wilhelm |
||
Line 219: | Line 201: | ||
| year = 1840 |
| year = 1840 |
||
| location = Adelaide |
| location = Adelaide |
||
| url = https:// |
| url = https://archive.org/details/outlinesagramma00unkngoog |
||
| format = PDF |
| format = PDF |
||
}} |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{Cite book| chapter = Nukunu (SA) |
*{{Cite book| chapter = Nukunu (SA) |
||
| last = Tindale | first = Norman Barnett |
| last = Tindale | first = Norman Barnett | year = 1974 |
||
| author-link = Norman Tindale |
| author-link = Norman Tindale |
||
| year = 1974 |
|||
| title = Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names |
| title = Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names |
||
| publisher = [[Australian National University Press]] |
| publisher = [[ANU Press|Australian National University Press]] |
||
| chapter-url = http://archives.samuseum.sa.gov.au/tindaletribes/nukunu.htm |
| chapter-url = http://archives.samuseum.sa.gov.au/tindaletribes/nukunu.htm |
||
| isbn = 978-0-708-10741-6 |
| isbn = 978-0-708-10741-6 |
||
}} |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{Cite book| title = Mount Remarkable |
*{{Cite book| title = Mount Remarkable |
||
| last = Valentine | first = J. C. |
| last = Valentine | first = J. C. | year = 1886 |
||
| year = 1886 |
|||
| editor-last = Curr | editor-first = Edward Micklethwaite | editor-link = Edward Micklethwaite Curr |
| editor-last = Curr | editor-first = Edward Micklethwaite | editor-link = Edward Micklethwaite Curr |
||
| volume = Volume 2 | pages = 136–139 |
|||
| publisher = J. Ferres | location = Melbourne |
| publisher = J. Ferres | location = Melbourne |
||
| volume = 2 | pages = 136–139 |
|||
| url = https://archive.org/download/cu31924026093827/cu31924026093827.pdf |
|||
| url = https://archive.org/download/cu31924026093827/cu31924026093827.pdf }} |
|||
| format = PDF |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
*{{Cite journal | title = Manners and customs of the Australian natives, in particular of the Port Lincoln district |
*{{Cite journal | title = Manners and customs of the Australian natives, in particular of the Port Lincoln district |
||
| last = Wilhelmi | first = Charles |
| last = Wilhelmi | first = Charles |
||
Line 249: | Line 224: | ||
| location = Melbourne |
| location = Melbourne |
||
| year = 1860 | volume = 5 | pages = 164–203 |
| year = 1860 | volume = 5 | pages = 164–203 |
||
| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/103981#page/194/mode/1up |
| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/103981#page/194/mode/1up | format = PDF |
||
}} |
|||
| format = PDF |
|||
| ref = harv |
|||
}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
{{refend}} |
||
{{Aboriginal South Australians}} |
{{Aboriginal South Australians}} |
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{{authority control}} |
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[[Category:Aboriginal peoples of South Australia]] |
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples of South Australia]] |
Nukunu are an Aboriginal Australian people of South Australia, living around the Spencer Gulf area. In the years after British colonisation of South Australia, the area was developed to contain the cities of Port Pirie and Port Augusta.
Both the Ngaiawang people of the Lower Murray and the Adelaide region's Kaurna used their variant pronunciation for the Nukuni, nokunno and nokuna, to signify an assassin, a mythical figure who was given to roaming about at night in search of people to kill.[1][2]
Nukunu language, together with Ngadjuri, with which it has a 90% overlap, is broadly classified by Luise Hercus, following the taxonomy of Wilhelm Schmidt, as belonging to the Miru cluster of the Thura-Yura languages.[3]
According to Norman Tindale's calculations, the Nukunu possessed approximately 2,200 square miles (5,700 km2) of tribal land. This lay on the eastern side of Spencer Gulf, from a point just north of the mouth of the Broughton River and the vicinity of Crystal BrooktoPort Augusta. Their eastern extension ran to Melrose, Mount Remarkable, Gladstone, and Quorn, and they were also present at Baroota.[1]
In 2019, the Nukunu people were granted native title over Port Pirie and part of the Flinders Ranges. On 3 February 2022, after a protracted 28-year dispute over boundaries, they were also given title over a large area east of Port Augusta by a sitting of the Federal Court of Australia. Only one of the original claimants, elder Lindsay Thomas, was still alive. This area borders an area granted to the Barngarla people[4] in September 2021. All three court sittings and decisions were presided over by Justice Natalie Charlesworth.[5]
The Nukunu were the southeasternmost tribe that adopted not only circumcision but also subincision[6] as part of their rite of initiating young males into full tribal status. The Nukunu took pride in being "ritual purists".[2][7]
A. P. Elkin established that the Nukunu represented the most southeasterly tribe maintaining a matrilineal moiety system, involving two marriage moieties, the Mathari and the Kararru. The system was essentially akin to that existing among the Barngarla, Adnyamathanha and Wailpi.[8][2]
The Nukunu land was full of sacred sites, and formed the starting point for the longest songline registered in Australia, the Urumbula songline. This songline extends from a large tree, representing also the Milky Way, said to stand near the present day Port Augusta Hospital (Point Augusta) northwards right to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The story cycle dealt with the wanderings of the western quoll. The Arerrnte central desert people retain details of the mythical events that are located far south, in Nukunu tribal lands.[9]
Colonisation of the area began in 1849, and a late estimate is that the tribe consisted of between 50 and 100 people. Before this, it is thought that the Nukunu had been ravaged by the spread of smallpox from the Murray River, some two decades earlier.[10] The subsequent transformation of the land for pastoral and wheat-growing purposes devastated the Nukunu.[11]
Peter Ferguson and William Younghusband took up a "run" of some 560 square miles (1,500 km2) from Thalpiri, now known as Port Pirie, to Crystal Brook, which was stocked with 25,000 sheep and 3400 cattle.[12] In late June 1852 Ferguson rounded up seven Nukunu after pursuing them to retrieve 54 sheep that had been taken from his flocks and they were remanded at Clare County Court for trial in Adelaide, but were released after two months when no plaintiffs appeared to assist the prosecution.[13] In 1854, after cattle had been pilfered, Ferguson, together with his stockmen, killed a group of local Aboriginal people at Crystal Brook.[11] Writing in 1880, J. C. Valentine stated that only eight Nukunu had survived these radical upheavals, five men and three women; the rest, in his view, had expired from phthisis.[10]
This enclosure of their tribal lands for pastoralism led to the dispossession, and decimation,[14] of the Nukunu from the end of the 1840s onwards, and small remnants took refuge in scattered camps around Orroroo, Melrose, Wilmington, Stirling North, and Baroota.[2][7] Some Nukunu managed to keep alive their direct attachment to their traditional lands by remaining at Port Germein, the Baroota reserve set aside for them, and at Port Augusta.[14] With their fragmentation and dispersion, they could no longer adhere to their rigorous rules, and subsequently intermarried with people with Narungga, Barngarla and Wirangu descent, while maintaining a keen sense of their Nukunu identity.[2]