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Editing Reasonable and probable grounds in Australia

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{{short description|Part of Australian law}}
In [[Criminal law of Australia|Australian criminal law]], '''reasonable and probable grounds''' most prominently regulates police officers as a precondition of the exercise of certain powers in their function as [[Law enforcement in Australia|enforcers of the law]].{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=482}} Based on Australian [[common law]], it is a prerequisite of most police powers (including arresting without a warrant,<ref name="NSW LE(P&R) s99">{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|leara2002451|Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002|99}}.</ref> searching without a warrant,<ref name="NSW LE(P&R) s21">{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|leara2002451|Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002|21}}.</ref> requesting disclosure of identity,<ref name="Sanders 2018">{{cite web|first=Jane|last=Sanders |publisher=Legal Aid NSW |title=Police powers of arrest and detention |date=February 2018 |url=https://www.legalaid.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/28543/Police-powers-of-arrest-and-detention-Feb-2018.pdf |accessdate=22 January 2020 |ref=CITEREFSanders "Police powers of arrest" (2018)}}</ref> and investigating terrorist activity).{{sfn|Gray (2011)|pages=57-59}} In Canada, it is defined as the point where probability replaces suspicion based on a reasonable belief; reasonableness is a legitimate expectation in the existence of specific facts, and the belief in individual circumstances can be "reasonable without being probable."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://criminalnotebook.ca/index.php/Reasonable_and_Probable_Grounds|title=Reasonable and Probable Grounds - Criminal Law Notebook|website=criminalnotebook.ca|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref> Less-clearly defined in Australia, it depends on the circumstances of a case and often involves an assessment of the circumstances of a potential crime.

Law has an overarching doctrine of reasonableness. It is derived from a hypothetical [[reasonable person]], a standard by which a law is explained to a jury. The reasonable person, and reasonableness itself, extends to the concept of reasonable and probable grounds as a justification for the exercise of power (or discretion). Reasonable and probable grounds differ from that of the reasonable person and the [[Rule of reason|test of reason]]. Some [[States and territories of Australia|state]] and [[Judiciary of Australia|federal]] common-law judgments{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|pages=445-446}} and [[Statutory authority|statutory authorities]] explicitly refer to "reasonable and probable grounds".<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> The concept, introduced to the Australian legal system at the turn of the 21st century, is evolving and sometimes inconsistent.

== Development in common law ==
[[File:Balanced scale of Justice.svg|thumb|alt=ink drawing of the balanced scales of justice|The scales of justice]]
Reasonable and probable grounds have evolved from common-law judgments, employing [[judicial discretion]] to make a balanced ruling.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|pages=444-450}} Two principles guide the reasonable and probable grounds necessary to act on certain powers:<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> [[reasonable suspicion]] and reasonable necessity.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=482}}

=== Reasonable suspicion ===
Reasonable suspicion,{{sfn|Skolnik (2016)|pages=231-232}} the legal standard which must be met before police officers can exercise certain powers,<ref name="Sanders 2018"/><ref>{{cite AustLII|NSWCCA|540|2001|litigants=R v Rondo}}.</ref> is based on information in the mind of the police officer at the time a power is wielded. Less than a reasonable belief, it is more than a possibility. It is not arbitrary.<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> Australia is a state party to the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] that specifies the protection from arbitrary arrest and detention by the Article 9 making the multi-nation agreement domestic law in Australia.

The concept has been reaffirmed in the common law since the 20th century,{{sfn|Gray (2011)|page=54}} and is one of the bases of reasonable and probable grounds to exercise the police powers of search and arrest and other discretionary powers.<ref name="Sanders 2017">{{cite web|first=Jane|last=Sanders |publisher=Legal Aid NSW |title=Police powers to search and seize mobile phones |date=August 2017 |url=https://www.legalaid.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/27513/Jane-Sanders-Police-powers-to-search-and-seize-mobile-phones.pdf |accessdate=22 January 2020 |ref=CITEREFSanders "Police powers to search mobile phones" (2017)}}</ref><ref>{{cite AustLII|NSWDC|126|2011|litigants=R v Beekman}}.</ref> There are ten propositions of how a person may have a reasonable suspicion<ref name="Sanders 2018"/><ref name="Hyder">{{cite AustLII|NSWCA|336|2012|litigants=Hyder v Commonwealth of Australia}}</ref> in the preliminary stage of an investigation, and the court determines whether the grounds for reasonable suspicion exist. The propositions are:
# Sufficient facts to induce suspicion in a reasonable person
# Belief formed by the arresting person
# Accountability of the arresting officer
# A factual basis for suspicion
# Objective circumstances pointing clearly to the belief
# A mental inclination to assent to (rather than reject) a belief
# What was known and reasonably able to be known at the relevant time
# A belief that can be based on external information, but cannot be directive
# Sources used to form a belief must be identifiable to the court
# The executive discretion of police officers to arrest can only be questioned if the validity of the decision to arrest was not effectively exercised.<ref name="Hyder [15]">{{cite AustLII|NSWCA|336|2012|litigants=Hyder v Commonwealth of Australia|pinpoint=[15]}}</ref>

===Reasonable necessity===
What constitutes reasonable and probable grounds in the common law is revealed from what is reasonably necessary: an obligation which develops in the mind of a police officer to wield the relevant police power.<ref name="Sanders 2017"/><ref>{{cite AustLII|NSWStRp|22|1933|litigants=Clarke v Bailey |parallelcite=(1933) 33 [[State Reports (New South Wales)|SR (NSW)]] 303}}.</ref>

== Statutory development ==
Police, on reasonable and probable grounds, can exercise discretionary powers including arrest, searches, requests for identity and investigating terrorist activity. These powers are conferred with legislation regulating police officers (such as the Law Enforcement [Powers and Responsibilities] Act 2002 for [[New South Wales]])<ref name="NSW LE(P&R)">{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|leara2002451|Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002}}.</ref> or regulating specific powers, such as the Terrorism (Police Powers) Act 2002 (also NSW).<ref name="NSW Terror">{{cite Legislation AU|NSW|act|tpa2002291|Terrorism (Police Powers) Act 2002}}.</ref> Regardless of the type of police power, reasonable grounds is the only doctrine with which police officers can function as law enforcers.<ref name="Sanders 2018"/>

=== Arrest without a warrant ===
Police have the power to arrest, without a warrant, on reasonable and probable grounds.<ref>LexisNexis, Halsbury’s Laws of Australia, (online at 5 February 2015) 320 Police and Emergency Services, "2 Functions and Powers of Police" [235]-[400].</ref> This is preserved by statutory reforms, creating a legal standard<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> in section 99 of the Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002 (NSW).<ref name="NSW LE(P&R) s99"/> Reasonable grounds for making such an arrest involves what is reasonably necessary for the relevant situation,<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> an objective test by which police officers must be satisfied that an arrest is the best conceivable option.<ref name="Griffith 2013">{{citation |first=Gareth |last=Griffith |title=Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Amendment (Arrest without Warrant) Bill 2013 |url=https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/researchpapers/Documents/law-enforcement-powers-and-responsibilities-amen/Arrest%20without%20warrant.pdf |series=Research Paper No 4 |publisher=Parliamentary Library Research Service |year=2013 |ref=CITEREFGriffith "Arrest without Warrant" (2013)}}</ref> The common law requires that this power be exercised only as a last resort, where it is necessary to deprive an individual of freedom.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=439}}

=== Search without a warrant ===
Similar to the power of arrest, police can search a person, vehicle or premises without a warrant on reasonable and probable grounds. Although the grounds do not specifically require reasonable necessity, it is implied by common law.<ref name="Sanders 2017"/> This power is preserved by section 21 of the Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act (NSW).<ref name="NSW LE(P&R) s21"/> The reasonable grounds by which a police officer exercises the search of a person, vehicle or premises is legitimized for the purposes of discovering (and preserving) evidence.<ref name="Griffith 2001">{{citation |first=Gareth |last=Griffith |title=Police Powers in NSW: Background to the Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Bill 2001 |url=https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/researchpapers/Documents/police-powers-in-nsw-background-to-the-law-enfor/11-01.pdf |series=Research Paper No 11 |publisher=Parliamentary Library Research Service |year=2001 |ref=CITEREFGriffith "Police Powers in NSW" (2001)}}</ref>

=== Disclosure of identity ===
With reasonable grounds, police have the power to require a person to disclose their identity if the person can assist them in investigating alleged indictable offences.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=448}} There is also an implied power in the common law to verify someone's identity in circumstances where police can request this information.<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> This power, less contentious than arresting or searching without a warrant, is subject to reasonable and probable grounds to protect the human rights to privacy and dignity.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=482}}

=== Investigating terrorist activity ===
A recent expansion in the scope of reasonable and probable grounds is the addition of police powers to investigate terrorist activity and authorize processes to prevent terrorist acts. This is authorized by the Terrorism (Police Powers) Act 2002 (NSW) at the state level and the Australian Federal Police Act 1979 (Cth) at the commonwealth (federal) level,<ref name="NSW Terror"/><ref>Australian Federal Police Act 1979 (Cth).</ref> which identify police powers (such as requiring disclosure of identity, searching a person, vehicle or premises, seizing and detaining evidence, and the [[use of force]]) which can be exercised in any situation where a terrorist act has occurred or could occur.{{sfn|Gray (2011)|pages=57-59}}

== Legal-system use evaluation ==
Reasonable and probable grounds is generally based on tests of objectivity, incorporating rationality and proportionality.<ref name="Griffith 2013"/> The role of an officer in exercising police powers is to ensure that relevant reasonable and probable grounds exist to justify the exercise of power.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=445}} Its practicality is an issue, since it is open to interpretation and depends on the person exercising the power.{{sfn|Skolnik (2016)|page=223}}{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=436}}

The most contentious powers of police officers, arrest and search, involve human rights such as the right to liberty and privacy.{{sfn|Gray (2011)|page=58}} An incorrect presumption by police officers of reasonable and probable grounds for the exercise of power risks the encroachment or violation of those rights.{{sfn|Gray (2011)|page=59}} The [[death of Beto Laudisio]] involved inappropriate, disproportionate use of force in the police officers' arrest Roberto Curti. The legitimacy and legality of the reasonable and probable grounds to use force in the attempt to arrest Curti was undermined by irrationality and poor assessment of the situation.<ref name="Bibby 2014">{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Bibby |title=Police used 'excessive, unnecessary, unlawful' force on Brazilian student Roberto Curti, court hears |newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald |date=17 November 2014 |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/police-used-excessive-unnecessary-unlawful-force-on-brazilian-student-roberto-curti-court-hears-20141117-11o3tr.html}}</ref> The arrest of a disability pensioner in [[Melbourne]] was reported by the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]; six police officers tackled and arrested the man in a demonstration of police brutality and the misjudgment which may occur in the exercise of reasonable and probable grounds.<ref name="Knight 2018">{{cite news |first=Ben |last=Knight |title=Melbourne police captured on video taking down disability pensioner |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=3 April 2018 |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-03/melbourne-police-on-video-taking-down-disability-pensioner/9591006}}</ref>

Legislation has been reformed in an attempt to clarify the boundaries of reasonable and probable grounds. The most prominent reform, in 2013, narrowed the grounds of reasonableness and probability with a twofold test which police officers must satisfy before making an arrest without a warrant.<ref name="Griffith 2013"/><ref name="Sentas & McMahon">{{citation |first1=Vicki |last1=Sentas |first2=Rebecca |last2=McMahon |name-list-style=amp |title=Changes to the police power of arrest |url=http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/CICrimJust/2014/4.pdf}} (2014) 25(3) ''Current Issues in Criminal Justice'' 785.</ref> Police officers may arrest a person if they suspect, on reasonable grounds, that an offence may be (or has been) committed.<ref name="Sanders 2018"/> Officers must be satisfied that the arrest is reasonably necessary to prevent the commission of another offence, to protect the victims, witnesses and community, and to ensure that the offence is dealt with properly and justly.<ref name="Sentas & McMahon"/>

The use of reasonable grounds with respect to terrorism has been criticized because of its arbitrary abuse to justify undue searches and detentions of persons in public places at risk of "large-scale public disorder".{{sfn|Gray (2011)|pages=57-59}} This is primarily the result of inconsistent interpretations of reasonable grounds.{{sfn|Gray (2011)|pages=57-59}} In 2017 and 2018, terrorism laws were reformed in the extent and scope of police powers to improve protection.<ref name="Booker 2019">{{cite news |first=Chloe |last=Booker |title=Terror laws: Suspects, children to be locked up without a warrant |newspaper=The Age |date=31 May 2019 |url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/new-terror-laws-suspects-children-to-be-locked-up-without-a-warrant-20181001-p5076n.html}}</ref> Concerns exist, however, that the introduction of "extraordinary" police powers broadens the scope of reason to exercise power to a degree disproportionate to the possibility of an offence;{{sfn|Gray (2011)|pages=70}} a person without a criminal record, for example, can be arrested and detained for up to four days.<ref name="Booker 2019"/>

== Comparison with other legal systems ==
As in [[Law of Canada|Canada]], reasonable grounds are articulated in the law as a standard by which police can lawfully arrest and search a person. In Canada, this standard has both objective and subjective reasoning behind it;{{sfn|Skolnik (2016)|page=233}} in Australia, however, the extent of the subjectivity of reasonable grounds is unclear. The Canadian system of police powers on reasonable and probable grounds is more clearly defined; a tip from an informer reporting a crime is insufficient to establish reasonable and probable grounds.<ref>''R v Garofoli'' (1990) 2 SCR 1421.</ref> In Australia it depends on the circumstances of the case, rather than on the reasonable and probable grounds itself.<ref name="Sanders 2018"/>

In the [[Law of the United States|United States]], the doctrine of [[probable cause]] governs the exercise of police powers and is argued as differing from reasonableness in preventing random and unnecessary searches. This is reaffirmed in the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] of the [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]], and differs from Australian legislative amendments and common law.{{sfn|Brown et al. ''Criminal Laws''|page=438}}

== See also ==
* [[Rule of reason]]
* [[Jurisdiction]]

== References ==
<references />

== Sources ==

* {{citation |first=Anthony |last=Gray |title=The rule of law and reasonable suspicion |ref=CITEREFGray (2011)}} (2011) 16(2) ''Australian Journal of Human Rights'' 53. {{doi|10.1080/1323238X.2011.11910888}}
* {{cite book |first1=David |last1=Brown |first2=David |last2=Farrier |first3=Luke |last3=McNamara |first4=Alex |last4=Steel |first5=Michael |last5=Grewcocket |name-list-style=amp |title=Criminal Laws: Materials and commentary on criminal law and process in NSW |publisher=Federation Press |edition=6th |year=2015 |isbn=9781862879843 |ref=CITEREFBrown et al. ''Criminal Laws''}}
* LexisNexis, ''Halsbury’s Laws of Australia,'' (online at 5 February 2015) 320 Police and Emergency Services, ‘2 Functions and Powers of Police’ [235]-[400].
* {{cite web |first=Terry |last=Skolnik |title=The Suspicious Distinction between Reasonable Suspicion and Reasonable Grounds to Believe |url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=2782237 |ref=CITEREFSkolnik (2016)}}’ (2016) 47(1) ''[[Ottawa Law Review]]'' 223–249.

[[Category:Law of Australia]]

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