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Contents

   



(Top)
 


1 Method  



1.1  Continuous flow centrifugation  





1.2  Intermittent flow centrifugation  





1.3  Centrifugation variables  







2 Types  



2.1  Donation  



2.1.1  Donor safety  



2.1.1.1  Kit problems  





2.1.1.2  Donor selection  





2.1.1.3  Plasticizer exposure  









2.2  Therapy  







3 Indications  



3.1  ASFA categories  





3.2  Diseases and disorders  







4 Fluid replacement during apheresis  





5 See also  





6 References  





7 External links  














Apheresis






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Apheresis
Whole blood enters the centrifuge (1) and separates into plasma (2), leukocytes (3), and erythrocytes (4). Selected components are then drawn off (5).
MeSHD016238

[edit on Wikidata]

Apheresis (ἀφαίρεσις (aphairesis, "a taking away")) is a medical technology in which the blood of a person is passed through an apparatus that separates out one particular constituent and returns the remainder to the circulation. It is thus an extracorporeal therapy.

One of the uses of apheresis is for collecting hematopoetic stem cells.[1]

Method[edit]

Depending on the substance that is being removed, different processes are employed in apheresis. If separation by density is required, centrifugation is the most common method. Other methods involve absorption onto beads coated with an absorbent material and filtration.[citation needed]

The centrifugation method can be divided into two basic categories:[citation needed]

Continuous flow centrifugation[edit]

Continuous flow centrifugation (CFC) historically required two venipunctures as "continuous" means the blood is collected, spun, and returned simultaneously. Newer systems can use a single venipuncture by pooling blood in a vessel and cycling through drawing and returning blood though the needle while the centrifuge continuously processes blood remaining in the vessel.[2] The main advantage of this system is the low extracorporeal volume (calculated by volume of the apheresis chamber, the donor's hematocrit, and total blood volume of the donor) used in the procedure, which may be advantageous in the elderly and for children.[citation needed]

Intermittent flow centrifugation[edit]

Intermittent flow centrifugation (IFC) works in cycles, taking blood, spinning/processing it and then giving back the unused parts to the donor in a bolus. The main advantage is a single venipuncture site. It does require a larger extracorporeal volume, and takes significantly longer to perform the procedure via IFC. As such, it is less likely to be used for therapeutic reasons, and is often seen in Donation Center settings.[3] To stop the blood from coagulating, anticoagulant is automatically mixed with the blood as it is pumped from the body into the apheresis machine.[citation needed]

Centrifugation variables[edit]

The centrifugation process itself has four variables that can be controlled to selectively remove desired components. The first is spin speed and bowl diameter, the second is "sit time" in centrifuge, the third is solutes added, and the fourth is not as easily controllable: plasma volume and cellular content of the donor. The end product in most cases is the classic sedimented blood sample with the RBCs at the bottom, the buffy coat of platelets and WBCs (lymphocytes/granulocytes, PMNs, basophils, eosinophils/monocytes) in the middle and the plasma on top.[citation needed]

Types[edit]

Disinfect, insert the cannula, pull out the cannula, dress the wound. The blue pressure cuff is controlled by the platelet apheresis machine in newer models.

There are numerous types of apheresis.

Donation[edit]

Blood taken from a healthy donor can be separated into its component parts during blood donation, where the needed component is collected and the unharvested components are returned to the donor. Fluid replacement is usually not needed in this type of collection. In many countries, apheresis donors can donate platelets more often than those donating whole blood. There are several categories of component collections:

A Fenwal Erythropheresis machine being used for plasmapheresis

Donor safety[edit]

Kit problems[edit]

Two apheresis kit recalls were:

Donor selection[edit]

People who do not use a drug that may prevent blood donation, who do not have the risk of the carrier of a disease, and who have suitable vascular structure may be apheresis donors. For apheresis platelet donation the donor's pre platelet count should be above 150 x 10^9/L. For apheresis plasma donation, the donor's total protein level should be greater than 60 g/L. For double red cell apheresis, donors of either gender require a minimum hemoglobin level of 14.0 g/dl.[9]

Plasticizer exposure[edit]

Apheresis uses plastics and tubing, which come into contact with the blood. The plastics are made of PVC in addition to additives such as a plasticizer, often DEHP. DEHP leaches from the plastic into the blood, and people have begun to study the possible effects of this leached DEHP on donors as well as transfusion recipients.[citation needed]

Therapy[edit]

The assembly (A–D), operation (E) and disassembly (F) of the platelet apheresis machine, which can be configured to separate other components as well

The various apheresis techniques may be used whenever the removed constituent is causing severe symptoms of disease. Generally, apheresis has to be performed fairly often, and is an invasive process. It is therefore only employed if other means to control a particular disease have failed, or the symptoms are of such a nature that waiting for medication to become effective would cause suffering or risk of complications. For autoimmune diseases in which apheresis is effective, it is used not as a standalone treatment, but rather in conjunction with therapies that reduce production of autoantibodies.

Indications[edit]

Platelets collected by using apheresis at an American Red Cross donation center

ASFA categories[edit]

In 2023[14], the American Society for Apheresis published the 9th Special Edition of evidence based guidelines for the practice of Apheresis Medicine. These guidelines are based upon a systematic review of available scientific literature. Clinical utility for a given disease is denoted by assignment of an ASFA Category (I – IV). The quality and strength of evidence are denoted by standard GRADE recommendations. ASFA Categories are defined as follows:


Diseases and disorders[edit]

Only diseases (or mentioned special conditions thereof) with ASFA category I or II are displayed in bold, with category I being underlined in addition.

Disease Special condition ABO-incompatible hematopoietic stem cell transplantation Plasmapheresis II
ABO-incompatible solid organ transplantation Kidney Plasmapheresis II
Heart (<40 months of age) II
Liver (perioperative) III
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis Plasmapheresis II
Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy Plasmapheresis I
Acute liver failure Plasmapheresis III
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) Dry AMD Rheopheresis III
Systemic amyloidosis Plasmapheresis IV
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Plasmapheresis IV
Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Dialysis dependence Plasmapheresis III
Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage (DAH) III
Dialysis independence III
Goodpasture syndrome Dialysis independence Plasmapheresis I
Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage (DAH) I
Dialysis dependence and no DAH III
Aplastic anemiaorpure red cell aplasia Aplastic anemia Plasmapheresis III
Pure red cell aplasia II
Autoimmune hemolytic anemia Warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia Plasmapheresis III
Cold agglutinin disease, life-threatening II
Babesiosis Severe Erythrocytapheresis I
High-risk population II
Burn with circulatory shock Plasmapheresis IV
Heart transplant with allograft Prophylaxis of rejection Photopheresis I
Treatment of rejection II
Treatment of antibody-mediated rejection Plasmapheresis I
Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome Plasmapheresis I
Rasmussen's encephalitis Plasmapheresisorimmunoadsorption II
Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy Plasmapheresis I
Coagulation factor inhibitors Immunoadsorption III
Plasmapheresis IV
Cryoglobulinemia Severe/symptomatic Plasmapheresis I
Secondary to Hepatitis C Immunoadsorption II
Cutaneous T cell lymphoma: mycosis fungoidesorSézary disease Erythrodermic Photopheresis I
Non-erythrodermic III
Dermatomyositisorpolymyositis Plasmapheresis IV
Leukapheresis IV
Dilated cardiomyopathy NYHA class II-IV Immunoadsorptionorplasmapheresis III
Familial hypercholesterolemia Homozygotes LDL apheresis I
Heterozygotes II
Homozygotes with small blood volume Plasmapheresis II
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis Recurrent Plasmapheresis I
Graft-versus-host disease Skin Photopheresis II
Non-skin III
Hemolytic disease of the newborn Before intrauterine transfusion availability Plasmapheresis II
Hereditary haemochromatosis Erythrocytapheresis III
Hemolytic–uremic syndrome (HUS) Atypical HUS due to mutations in complement factor genes Plasmapheresis II
Atypical HUS due to factor H autoantibodies I
Typical HUS, or diarrhea-associated HUS IV
Leukocytosis Leukostasis Leukapheresis I
Prophylaxis of leukostasis III
Hyperviscosityinmonoclonal gammopathy Treatment of symptoms Plasmapheresis I
Prophylaxis in rituximab
Immune thrombocytopenic purpura Plasmapheresis IV
Immune complex-type of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Plasmapheresis III
Inclusion body myositis Plasmapheresisorleukapheresis IV
Inflammatory bowel disease Leukapheresis II
Kidney transplantation Antibody-mediated rejection Plasmapheresis I
Desensitization in living donor in positive crossmatch due to donor specific HLA antibody I
High PRA and cadaveric donor III
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome Plasmapheresis II
Lung transplantation Allograft rejection Plasmapheresis II
Malaria Severe Erythrocytapheresis II
Multiple sclerosis Acute inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system, unresponsive to steroids Plasmapheresis II
Chronic progressive III
Myasthenia gravis Moderate to severe Plasmapheresis I
Pre-thymectomy I
Myeloma cast nephropathy Plasmapheresis II
Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis PhotopheresisorPlasmapheresis III
Neuromyelitis optica Plasmapheresis II
Venoms, poisoning and overdose Mushroom poisoning Plasmapheresis II
Other III
Paraneoplastic syndrome Neurologic Plasmapheresisorimmunoadsorption III
Pancreatitis Secondary to hypertriglyceridemia Plasmapheresis III
Polyneuropathy due to monoclonal gammopathy IgG, IgA or IgM Plasmapheresis I
Multiple myeloma III
IgG/IgA or IgM Immunoadsorption III
PANDAS and Sydenham's chorea Plasmapheresis I
Pemphigus vulgaris Plasmapheresis IV
Photopheresis III
Refsum disease Plasmapheresis II
Polycythemia veraorerythrocytosis Erythrocytapheresis III
POEMS syndrome Plasmapheresis IV
Post-transfusion purpura Plasmapheresis III
Psoriasis Plasmapheresis IV
Rheumatoid arthritis Refractory Immunoadsorption II
Schizophrenia Plasmapheresis IV
Systemic scleroderma Plasmapheresis III
Photopheresis IV
Sepsis with multi-organ failure Plasmapheresis III
Sickle cell disease Acute stroke Erythrocytapheresis I
Acute chest syndrome II
Prophylaxis of stroke or transfusional iron overload II
Multi-organ failure III
Stiff-person syndrome Plasmapheresis IV
Systemic lupus erythematosus Severe, such as cerebritisordiffuse alveolar hemorrhage Plasmapheresis II
Nephritis IV
Thrombocytosis Symptomatic Plateletpheresis II
Prophylactic III
Thrombotic microangiopathy, drug-associated Plasmapheresis I
III
IV
Thrombotic microangiopathy, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation-related Plasmapheresis III
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura Plasmapheresis I
Thyroid storm Plasmapheresis III
Wilson's disease Fulminant hepatic failure with hemolysis Plasmapheresis I

Fluid replacement during apheresis[edit]

When an apheresis system is used for therapy, the system is removing relatively small amounts of fluid (not more than 10.5 mL/kg body weight). That fluid must be replaced to keep correct intravascular volume. The fluid replaced is different at different institutions. If a crystalloid like normal saline (NS) is used, the infusion amount should be triple what is removed as the 3:1 ratio of normal saline for plasma is needed to keep up oncotic pressure. Some institutions use human serum albumin, but it is costly and can be difficult to find. Routine use of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) is not generally appropriate because of the dangers including citrate toxicity (from the anticoagulant), ABO incompatibility, infection, and allergic reactions. However, FFP should be used in cases of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura or patients at high risk of bleeding.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Katherine, Abel (2013). Official CPC Certification Study Guide. American Medical Association. p. 128.
  • ^ US patent 7108672, "Extracorporeal blood processing methods and apparatus" 
  • ^ "Apheresis". Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  • ^ dtm double red cell Archived July 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  • ^ Yamanaka, I., Yamauchi, T., Henzan, T. et al. Optimization of lymphapheresis for manufacturing autologous CAR-T cells. Int J Hematol 114, 449–458 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12185-021-03191-x
  • ^ Strauss, Ronald G. (1984). "Apheresis donor safety – changes in humoral and cellular immunity". Journal of Clinical Apheresis. 2 (1): 68–80. doi:10.1002/jca.2920020112. PMID 6536660. S2CID 25890912.
  • ^ "Recall of Amicus Apheresis Kits, Baxter Healthcare Corporation". Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 2009-01-17. Retrieved 2008-12-20. "Recall of Amicus Apheresis Kits, Baxter Healthcare Corporation", US FDA, Jan 31 2005
  • ^ "Recall of CS3000 Apheresis Kits". Food and Drug Administration. June 21, 2007.
  • ^ Boulton F. The 13% rule. Comments. Transfusion Today, 2007, 71:7–9.
  • ^ Koch, Holger M.; Bolt, Hermann M.; Preuss, Ralf; Eckstein, Reinhold; Weisbach, Volker; Angerer, Jürgen (2005). "Intravenous exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP): Metabolites of DEHP in urine after a voluntary platelet donation". Archives of Toxicology. 79 (12): 689–93. doi:10.1007/s00204-005-0004-x. PMID 16059725. S2CID 743051.
  • ^ Buchta, Christoph; Bittner, Claudia; Höcker, Paul; Macher, Maria; Schmid, Rainer; Seger, Christoph; Dettke, Markus (2003). "Donor exposure to the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate during plateletpheresis". Transfusion. 43 (8): 1115–20. doi:10.1046/j.1537-2995.2003.00479.x. PMID 12869118. S2CID 34539126.
  • ^ Koch, Holger M.; Angerer, Jürgen; Drexler, Hans; Eckstein, Reinhold; Weisbach, Volker (2005). "Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) exposure of voluntary plasma and platelet donors". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 208 (6): 489–98. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2005.07.001. PMID 16325559.
  • ^ "Lipoprotein (a)". CDC Office of Science (OS), Office of Genomics and Precision Public Health. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. 5 July 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  • ^ Connelly-Smith, Laura; Alquist, Caroline; Aqui, Nicole; Hofmann, Jan; Klingel, Reinhard; et al. (2023). "Guidelines on the Use of Therapeutic Apheresis in Clinical Practice - Evidence-Based Approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis: The Ninth Special Issue". The Journal of Clinical Apheresis. 38 (2): 77–278. doi:10.1002/jca.22043. PMID 37017433.
  • External links[edit]

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