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F r o m W i k i p e d i a , t h e f r e e e n c y c l o p e d i a
Indian Film director, screenwriter, novelist and journalist
Khawaja Ahmad Abbas
Abbas in 1939
Born 7 June 1914 (1914-06-07 ) [1] Died 1 June 1987(1987-06-01) (aged 72 ) Other names K A Abbas Occupation(s ) Film director, screenwriter, novelist, journalist, columnist Years active 1935–1987 Notable work
Mera Naam Joker
Relatives Altaf Hussain Hali (grandfather)Awards
Golden Palm
Khwaja Ahmad Abbas (7 June 1914 – 1 June 1987)[2] Indian film director , screenwriter, novelist, and journalist in Urdu , Hindi and English.
He won four National Film Awards in India. Internationally, his films won the Palme d'Or Golden Palm Grand Prize) at Cannes Film Festival (out of three Palme d'Or Crystal Globe at Karlovy Vary International Film Festival . As a director and screenwriter, he is considered one of the pioneers of Indian parallel or neo-realistic cinema .[3]
As a director, he made Hindustani films. Dharti Ke Lal Bengal famine of 1943 , which was one of Indian cinema 's first social-realist films ,[3] overseas market for Indian films in the Soviet Union .[4] Pardesi Palme d'Or Shehar Aur Sapna National Film Award for Best Feature Film , while Saat Hindustani Do Boond Pani National Film Awards for Best Feature Film on National Integration .
As a screenwriter, he wrote a number of neo-realistic films, such as Dharti Ke Lal [3] Neecha Nagar Palme d'Or first Cannes Film Festival , Naya Sansar (1941), Jagte Raho Saat Hindustani Palme d'Or Awaara Shree 420 Mera Naam Joker Bobby Henna [5]
His column 'Last Page' was one of the longest-running newspaper columns in the history of Indian journalism. It began in 1935, in The Bombay Chronicle Blitz Chronicle' s closure, where it continued until his death in 1987.[6] Padma Shri by the Government of India in 1969.
In total, his works include 74 books, 90 short stories, 3000 journalistic articles and 40 films.[7]
Biography [ edit ]
Family background [ edit ]
Abbas belonged to the Ansari family of Panipat , tracing its roots back to Abu Ayyub al-Ansari , a close companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , and among the famed personalities that it produced we find: the 12th century Sufi saint Abdullah Ansari of Herat in Afghanistan ; his maternal grandfather Altaf Hussain Hali , a student of Mirza Ghalib and himself an Urdu poet of repute; his paternal grandfather Khwaja Ghulam Abbas, one of the chief rebels of the 1857 Rebellion movement, and the first martyr of Panipat to be blown from the mouth of a cannon; his father Ghulam-us-Sibtain, among the first graduates from Aligarh Muslim University , who was a tutor of a prince and a businessman who modernised the preparation of Unani medicines ; Abbas's mother, Masroora Khatoon, was the daughter of Khwaja Sajjad Husain, an educator keen on female education, having established the first school for girls in Panipat.[8]
Early life and education [ edit ]
Abbas was born in Panipat , undivided Punjab . He attended Hali Muslim High School, which was established by his maternal grandfather, Hali.[8] [10] : 30
He gained a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature in 1933 and a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1935 from Aligarh Muslim University .[11]
Illness and death [ edit ]
Abbas suffered from a heart attack in the 60s, followed by another more serious heart attack, a paralytic stroke as well a on set accident injuring his legs, but he kept working till his death at the age of 72 on the 1st of June 1987.[12]
Journalism [ edit ]
After leaving university,K.A Abbas began his career as a journalist at the National Call , a New Delhi-based newspaper. Later while studying law in 1934, started Aligarh Opinion .
He joined The Bombay Chronicle
He entered films as a part-time publicist for Bombay Talkies in 1936, a production house owned by Himanshu Rai and Devika Rani , to whom he sold his first screenplay Naya Sansar
While at The Bombay Chronicle (1935–1947), he started a weekly column called 'Last Page', which he continued when he joined the Blitz magazine.[5] [13]
Abbas interviewed several renowned personalities in literary and non-literary fields, including the Russian Prime Minister Khrushchov, American President Roosevelt, Charlie Chaplin, Mao-Tse-Tung and Yuri Gagarin.
Meanwhile, he had started writing scripts for other directors, Neecha Nagar Dr. Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani
In 1945, he made his directorial debut with a film based on the Bengal famine of 1943 , Dharti Ke Lal Children of the Earth ), for the Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA ). In 1951, he founded his own production company called Naya Sansar, which consistently produced films that were socially relevant including, Anhonee , Munna , Rahi (1953), based on a Mulk Raj Anand story, was on the plight of workers on tea plantations, the National Film Award winner, Shehar Aur Sapna Saat Hindustani Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration and is also remembered as Bollywood icon Amitabh Bachchan 's debut film.
He wrote the story and screenplay for the controversial themed film in 1974 Call Girl
He went on to write scripts for Jagte Raho Raj Kapoor films including Awaara , Shri 420 , Mera Naam Joker , Bobby Henna
Literature [ edit ]
Abbas wrote 74 books in English, Hindi and Urdu[14] [15] [16]
His autobiography, I Am not an Island: An Experiment in Autobiography , was published in 1977 and again in 2010.[6]
Censorship case [ edit ]
In 1968, Abbas made a documentary film called Char Shaher Ek Kahani (A Tale of Four Cities).[17] Calcutta , Bombay , Madras and Delhi and that of the squalor and poverty of the poor. He approached the Central Board of Film Certification to obtain a 'U' (Unrestricted Public Exhibition) certificate . Abbas was, however, informed by the regional office of the Board that the film was not eligible to be granted a 'U' certificate, but was suitable for exhibition only for adults. His appeal to the revising committee of the Central Board of Film Certification led to the decision of the censors being upheld.[18]
Khwaja Ahmad Abbas further appealed to the Central Government but the government decided to grant the film a 'U' certificate provided certain scenes were cut. Following this, Abbas approached the Supreme Court of India by filing a writ petition under Article 19(1 ) of the Indian Constitution . He claimed that his fundamental right of free speech and expression was denied by the Central Government 's refusal to grant the film a 'U' certificate.[18] [19]
However the Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutional validity of pre-censorship on films.
[20] [21]
Awards and honours [ edit ]
Literary [ edit ]
Haryana State Robe of Honour for literary achievements in 1969, the Ghalib Award for his contribution to Urdu prose literature in 1983[29]
Vorosky Literary Award of the Soviet Union in 1984, Urdu Akademi Delhi Special Award 1984, Maharashtra State Urdu Akademi Award in 1985 and the Soviet Award for his contribution to the cause of Indo-Soviet Friendship in 1985.
Filmography [ edit ]
Dharti Ke Lal
Dr. Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani
Neecha Nagar
Aaj Aur Kal
Awara
Anhonee
Rahi
Munna
Shree 420
Jagte Raho
Pardesi
Char Dil Char Rahen
Eid Mubarak (1960) Documentary / Short – Director
Gir Game Sanctuary (1961) Documentary – Director
Flight to Assam (1961) – Director
Gyara Hazar Ladkian
Teen Gharaney (1963) – Director
Shehar Aur Sapna
Hamara Ghar (1964) – Director
Tomorrow Shall Be Better (1965) Documentary[30]
Aasman Mahal
Bambai Raat Ki Bahon Mein [31]
Dharti Ki Pukaar (1967) Short Film – Director
Chaar Shaher Ek Kahani (1968) Documentary – Director
Saat Hindustani
Mera Naam Joker
Do Boond Pani [32]
Bharat Darshan (1972) Documentary - Director
Luv Kush (1972) Short film - Director[33]
Bobby
Kal Ki Baat (1973) Short Film – Director
Call Girl (1973) - Story and Screenplay
Achanak
Juhu (1973) (TV ) – Director
Faslah
Papa Miya of Aligarh (1975) Documentary – Director
Phir Bolo Aaye Sant Kabir (1976) Documentary – Director
Dr. Iqbal (1978) – Documentary – Director
The Naxalites
Hindustan Hamara (1983) Documentary / Short – Director
Love in Goa (1983) – Screenwriter
Nanga Fakir (1984) (TV ) – Director
Ek Aadmi
Akanksha (1989) (TV ) – Dialogue, Screenplay
Henna
He wrote 74 books in English, Urdu and Hindi,[34]
Outside India: The Adventures of a Roving Reporter , Hali Pub. House, Delhi, 1939.
An Indian looks at America (The Rampart library of good reading), 1943.
An Indian looks at America , Thacker, Bombay, 1943.
Tomorrow is ours! A novel of the India of Today ; Bombay, Popular Book Depot, 1943.
"Let India fight for freedom", Bombay, Sound magazine (Publication dept.), 1943.
Defeat for death: A story without names , Padmaja Publications 1944.
"...and One Did Not Come Back!", Sound magazine, 1944
A report to Gandhiji: A survey of Indian and world events during the 21 months of Gandhiji's incarceration , 1944
Invitation to Immortality : a one-act play, Bombay: Padma Pub., 1944.
Not all Lies . Delhi: Rajkamal Pub., 1945.
Blood and stones and other stories . Bombay: Hind Kitabs, 1947
Rice and other stories , Kutub, 1947
Kashmir fights for freedom , 1948
I Write as I Feel , Hind Kitabs, Bombay, 1948
Cages of freedom and other stories , Bombay, Hind Kitabs Ltd., 1952.
China can make it: Eye-witness account of the amazing industrial progress in new China , 1952.
In the Image of Mao Tse-Tung , Peoples Publishing House, 1953
INQILAB. First Great Novel of the Indian Revolution , Jaico Publishing House , 1958
Face To Face with Khrushchov , Rajpal & Sons, 1960
Till We Reach the Stars. The Story of Yuri Gagarin , Asia Pub. House, 1961
The Black sun and Other stories , Jaico Publishing House , 1963.
Raat ki bahon mein , Hindi, Radhakr̥ishṇa Prakashan, 1965.
Indira Gandhi; return of the red rose , Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi, 1966.
Divided heart , Paradise Publications, 1968
When Night Falls , 1968.
Chabili , Hindi, Allahabad, Mitra Prakashan, 1968.
The most beautiful woman in the world , Paradise Publications, 1968
Salma aur Samundar , Urdu/Hindi, New Delhi, Komala Pocket Books, 1969.
Mera Naam Joker , 1970
Maria , Delhi, Hind Pocket Books, 1971.
Teen Pahiye , Urdu/Hindi, Delhi, Rajpal & Sons, 1971.
Bobby , Urdu/Hindi, 1973
Boy meets Girl , Sterling Publishers, 1973
That Woman: Her Seven Years in Power ; New Delhi, Indian Book Co., 1973
Jawaharlal Nehru: Portrait of an integrated Indian ; New Delhi, NCERT, 1974.
Fasilah , Urud/Hindi, Hind Pocket Books, Delhi, 1974
Distant dream, New Delhi , Sterling Pub., 1975.
The walls of glass : A novel, 1977
Barrister-at-law: A play about the early life of Mahatma Gandhi , New Delhi, Orient Paperbacks, 1977.
Men and women: Specially selected long and short stories , 1977
Mad, mad, mad world of Indian films , 1977
I Am not an Island: An Experiment in Autobiography , New Delhi, 1977.
Four Friends , Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi, 1977.
20 March 1977: a day like any other day , Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978.
Janata in a jam? , 1978.
The Naxalites , Lok Publications, 1979.
Bread, beauty, and revolution: being a chronological selection from the Last pages, 1947 to 1981 , Marwah Publications, New Delhi, 1982.
Nili Sari aur Doosri Kahaniyan̲ , Urdu, Maktabah-e-Jamia, New Delhi, 1982.
The gun and other stories , Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi, 1985.
The Thirteenth Victim, Amar Prakashan, 1986.
The World Is My Village: A Novel With An Index , Ajanta, 1984. ISBN 978-81-202-0104-0
Bombay My Bombay: A Love Story of the City , Ajanta Publications/Ajanta Books International, 1987. ISBN 978-81-202-0174-3
Indira Gandhi: The Last Post ; Bombay, Ramdas G. Bhatkal, 1989
Defeat for death: a story without names . Baroda: Padmaja Pub., 1994
How Films Are Made , National Book Trust, 1999, ISBN 978-81-237-1103-4
Soney Chandi ke Butt , Urdu, Alhamra, 2001, ISBN 978-969-516-074-9
Khwaja Ahmad Abbas; Vasant Sāthe; Suhail Akhtar (2010). The Dialogue of Awaara: Raj Kapoor's Immortal Classic ISBN 978-81-89738-54-9
For detailed listing :[35] [36]
Bibliography [ edit ]
Books on Khwaja Ahmad Abbas [ edit ]
Ahmad Hasib, The Novels of Khwaja Ahmad Abbas , Seema. 1987
Hemendra Singh Chandalia, Ethos of Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, novelist, film-maker, and journalist: A study in social realism , Bohra Prakashan (1996)
Raj Narain Raz, Khawaja Ahmed Abbas-Ifkar . Guftar, Kirdar, Haryana Urdu Akademi [37]
Vasudev and Lenglet, eds., Indian Cinema Super-bazaar , Vikas, New Delhi, 1978.
Articles on Khwaja Ahmad Abbas [ edit ]
Dr. R.G. Mathapati, "Abbas: An Island" Archived 8 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
Indian Film Culture (New Delhi), no. 4, September 1964.
Film World , vol. 1, no. 10, October 1978.
Ghish, S., "K. A. Abbas: A Man in Tune with History", Screen (Bombay), 19 June 1987.
Obituary Archived 5 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine in Jump Cut (Berkeley, California), no. 33, February 1988.
Abbas, Communicator of repute , The Dawn , 13 October 2002.
Shoba S. Rajgopal, The Legacy of Ajitha
Ismat Chughtai , "Bachu", Urdu
V. P. Sathe, "K.A. Abbas, The Crusader", Filmfare , 16–30 June 1987
V. K. Cherian (31 October 2016). India's Film Society Movement: The Journey and its Impact. SAGE Publications. p 61–. ISBN 978-93-85985-62-1.
See also [ edit ]
References [ edit ]
^ a b c Rajadhyaksha, Ashish (2016). Indian Cinema: A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press . p. 61. ISBN 9780191034770 Archived from the original on 30 August 2023. Retrieved 3 November 2017 .
^ "With love from India to Russia" . Russia Beyond Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2017 .
^ a b K. A. Abbas – Films as writer:, Films as director: Archived 27 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine filmreference.com
^ a b "A Piece of the Continent: K.A. Abbas wrote an iconic column, but will be most remembered for the socially relevant films he produced" . Outlookindia.com . 17 May 2010. Archived from the original on 26 October 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2010 .
^ Krishnankutty, Pia (7 June 2020). "Writer, filmmaker, journalist — Khwaja Ahmad Abbas was master of all trades" . The Print Archived from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2020 .
^ a b Saiyidain Hameed , Syeda (18 October 2017). "Khwaja Ahmad Abbas: The Inveterate Communicator" . Sahapedia the original on 5 February 2024.
^ Abbas, Khwaja Ahmad (1977). I Am Not An Island ISBN 070690477X
^ Krishnankutty, Pia (7 June 2020). "Writer, filmmaker, journalist — Khwaja Ahmad Abbas was master of all trades" . ThePrint . Archived from the original on 11 October 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2020 .
^ K.A. Abbas Archived 7 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine (1914-1987) by Carol J. Slingo from Jump Cut , no. 33, Feb. 1988, p. 99
^ "The Legacy Project – View Entire Literary Sampler" . Archived from the original on 21 June 2006. Retrieved 1 April 2015 .
^ AUTHOR: Khwaja Ahmad Abbas (1914–87): Communicator of repute -DAWN – Books and Authors; 13 October 2002 Archived 20 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Indian Scripts" . Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 1 April 2015 .
^ "India Today Magazine" . Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2015 .
^ "Char Shaher Ek Kahani (A Tale of four cities) | the Life & Times of Khwaja Ahmad Abbas" . www.abbaska.com . Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2022 .
^ a b "K. A. Abbas vs The Union Of India & Anr on 24 September, 1970" . Indiankanoon.org . Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019 .
^ Bhatia, Gautam (13 June 2016). "A case for cutting out the censor" . The Hindu . Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2019 .
^ Bhatia, Gautam (7 May 2016). "Film censorship and the courts" . Livemint.com . Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019 .
^ "Eastern Book Company – Practical Lawyer" . Ebc-india.com . Archived from the original on 6 May 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019 .
^ 5th Annual BFJA Awards – Awards For The Year 1941 BFJA Awards Archived 30 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine
^ "10th Karlovy Vary IFF" . Film Servis Festival Karlovy Vary. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 22 May 2014 .
^ "4th National film Awards" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017 .
^ Khwaja Ahmad Abbas – Awards – IMDb Archived 24 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine IMDb Awards
^ "8th National Film Awards" . International Film Festival of India . Archived from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2011 .
^ "WebHost4Life – Web Hosting, Unix Hosting, E-Mail, Web Design" . Webhost4life.com . Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019 .
^ "Berlinale 1966: Juries" . berlinale.de . Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2010 .
^ "Ghalib Institute" . 20 October 2013. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2019 .
^ "Tomorrow Shall Be Better" . Citwf.com . Alan Goble. Archived from the original on 25 February 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2015 .
^ "Bambai Raat Ki Bahon Mein (1968)" . The Hindu Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013 .
^ Ashish Rajadhyaksha; Paul Willemen; Professor of Critical Studies Paul Willemen (10 July 2014). Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema ISBN 978-1-135-94318-9 Archived from the original on 30 August 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2015 .
^ "Khwaja Mohammed Abbas" . Abbaska.com . K. A. Abbas Memorial Trust. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2015 .
^ M.K. Naik,『Abbas, Khwaja Ahmad (1914–1987)』in Eugene Benson (ed.), Bholi, Encyclopedia of Post-Colonial Literatures in English , Routledge (2004), p. 2
^ Results for 'au:Khwaja Ahmad Abbas' > 'Khwaja Ahmad Abbas' [WorldCat.org ][permanent dead link
^ South Asian literature in English, Pre-independence era Archived 30 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Archived copy" . haryanaurdu.nic.in . Archived from the original on 23 July 2004. Retrieved 15 January 2022 .{{cite web }}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link )
Cited sources [ edit ]
Rajadhyaksha, Ashish (1999). Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema ISBN 978-0-85170-669-6
Amaresh Datta (1987). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo. Vol. 1 ISBN 978-81-260-1803-1
S. Ghosh, "K. A. Abbas: A Man in Tune with History", Screen (Bombay), 19 June 1987, p. 14.
Dictionary of Films (Berkeley: U. of CA Press, 1977), p. 84.
Shyamala A. Narayan, The Journal of Commonwealth Literature , 1 1976; vol. 11: pp. 82 – 94.
Ravi Nandan Sinha, Essays on Indian Literature in English . Jaipur, Book Enclave, 2002, ch. 7.
External links [ edit ]
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R e t r i e v e d f r o m " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khwaja_Ahmad_Abbas&oldid=1227729333 " C a t e g o r i e s : ● K h w a j a A h m a d A b b a s ● 1 9 1 4 b i r t h s ● 1 9 8 7 d e a t h s ● P e o p l e f r o m P a n i p a t ● A l i g a r h M u s l i m U n i v e r s i t y a l u m n i ● U r d u - l a n g u a g e s h o r t s t o r y w r i t e r s ● H i n d i - l a n g u a g e f i l m d i r e c t o r s ● U r d u - l a n g u a g e f i l m d i r e c t o r s ● 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y I n d i a n M u s l i m s ● I n d i a n m a l e s c r e e n w r i t e r s ● I n d i a n c o l u m n i s t s ● I n d i a n a u t o b i o g r a p h e r s ● I n d i a n m a l e n o v e l i s t s ● I n d i a n m a l e j o u r n a l i s t s ● I n d i a n P e o p l e ' s T h e a t r e A s s o c i a t i o n p e o p l e ● R e c i p i e n t s o f t h e P a d m a S h r i i n a r t s ● H i n d i f i l m p r o d u c e r s ● 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y I n d i a n n o v e l i s t s ● S c r e e n w r i t e r s f r o m H a r y a n a ● J o u r n a l i s t s f r o m H a r y a n a ● N o v e l i s t s f r o m H a r y a n a ● D i r e c t o r s w h o w o n t h e B e s t F e a t u r e F i l m N a t i o n a l F i l m A w a r d ● D i r e c t o r s w h o w o n t h e B e s t C h i l d r e n ' s F i l m N a t i o n a l F i l m A w a r d ● P r o d u c e r s w h o w o n t h e B e s t F i l m o n N a t i o n a l I n t e g r a t i o n N a t i o n a l F i l m A w a r d ● D i r e c t o r s w h o w o n t h e B e s t F i l m o n N a t i o n a l I n t e g r a t i o n N a t i o n a l F i l m A w a r d ● 2 0 t h - c e n t u r y I n d i a n s c r e e n w r i t e r s ● F i l m c e n s o r s h i p i n I n d i a H i d d e n c a t e g o r i e s : ● W e b a r c h i v e t e m p l a t e w a y b a c k l i n k s ● A l l a r t i c l e s w i t h d e a d e x t e r n a l l i n k s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h d e a d e x t e r n a l l i n k s f r o m J a n u a r y 2 0 2 4 ● A r t i c l e s w i t h p e r m a n e n t l y d e a d e x t e r n a l l i n k s ● C S 1 m a i n t : a r c h i v e d c o p y a s t i t l e ● A r t i c l e s w i t h s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n ● S h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m W i k i d a t a ● A r t i c l e s n e e d i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s f r o m S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 7 ● A l l a r t i c l e s n e e d i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s ● U s e d m y d a t e s f r o m D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 9 ● A r t i c l e s w i t h h C a r d s ● A r t i c l e s c o n t a i n i n g F r e n c h - l a n g u a g e t e x t ● A r t i c l e s c o n t a i n i n g H i n d i - l a n g u a g e t e x t ● A r t i c l e s w i t h F A S T i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h I S N I i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h V I A F i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h W o r l d C a t E n t i t i e s i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h B N F i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h B N F d a t a i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h G N D i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h J 9 U i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h K B R i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h L C C N i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h N K C i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h N T A i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h C I N I I i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h D T B I O i d e n t i f i e r s ● A r t i c l e s w i t h S U D O C i d e n t i f i e r s
● T h i s p a g e w a s l a s t e d i t e d o n 7 J u n e 2 0 2 4 , a t 1 3 : 4 7 ( U T C ) . ● T e x t i s a v a i l a b l e u n d e r t h e C r e a t i v e C o m m o n s A t t r i b u t i o n - S h a r e A l i k e L i c e n s e 4 . 0 ;
a d d i t i o n a l t e r m s m a y a p p l y . B y u s i n g t h i s s i t e , y o u a g r e e t o t h e T e r m s o f U s e a n d P r i v a c y P o l i c y . W i k i p e d i a ® i s a r e g i s t e r e d t r a d e m a r k o f t h e W i k i m e d i a F o u n d a t i o n , I n c . , a n o n - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n . ● P r i v a c y p o l i c y ● A b o u t W i k i p e d i a ● D i s c l a i m e r s ● C o n t a c t W i k i p e d i a ● C o d e o f C o n d u c t ● D e v e l o p e r s ● S t a t i s t i c s ● C o o k i e s t a t e m e n t ● M o b i l e v i e w
