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| Proto-Sámi | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Sámi languages |
Reconstructed | |
Proto-Sámi is the hypothetical, reconstructed common ancestor of the Sámi languages. It is a descendant of the Proto-Uralic language.
Although the current Sámi languages are spoken much further to the north and west, Proto-Sámi was likely spoken in the area of modern-day Southwestern Finland around the first few centuries CE. Local (inSápmi) ancestors of the modern Sámi people likely still spoke non-Uralic, "Paleoeuropean" languages at this point (see Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate). This situation can be traced in placenames as well as through the analysis of loanwords from Germanic, Baltic and Finnic. Evidence also can be found for the existence of language varieties closely related to but likely distinct from Sámi proper having been spoken further east, with a limit around Lake Beloye.
Separation of the main branches (West Sámi and East Sámi) is also likely to have occurred in southern Finland, with these later independently spreading north into Sápmi. The exact routes of this are not clear: it is possible Western Sámi entered Scandinavia across Kvarken rather than via land. Concurrently, Finnic languages that would eventually end up becoming modern-day Finnish and Karelian were being adopted in the southern end of the Proto-Sámi area, likely in connection with the introduction of agriculture, a process that continued until the 19th century, leading to the extirpation of original Sámi languages in Karelia and all but northernmost Finland.
The Proto-Sámi consonant inventory is mostly faithfully retained from Proto-Uralic, and is considerably smaller than what is typically found in modern Sámi languages. There were 16 contrastive consonants, most of which could however occur both short and geminate:
| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal(ized) | Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stops and affricates |
*p /p/ *pp /ʰpː/ |
*t /t̪/ *tt /ʰt̪ː/ |
*c /t͡s/ *cc /ʰt͡sː/ |
*ć /t͡ɕ/ *ćć /ʰt͡ɕː/ |
*k /k/ *kk /ʰkː/ |
| Nasals | *m /m/ *mm /mː/ |
*n /n̪/ *nn /n̪ː/ |
*ń /ɲ/ | *ŋ /ŋ/ | |
| Fricatives | *δ /ð/ | *s /s/ *ss /sː/ |
*ś /ɕ/ *śś /ɕː/ |
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| Approximants | *v /ʋ/ *vv /ʋː/ |
*l /l/ *ll /lː/ |
*j /j/ *jj /jː/ |
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| Trill | *r /r/ *rr /rː/ |
Stop and affricate consonants were split in three main allophones with respect to phonation:
The spirant *δ also had two allophones, voiceless [θ] occurring word-initially and syllable-finally, and voiced [ð] elsewhere.
A detailed system of allophony is reconstructible, known as consonant gradation. Gradation applied to all intervocalic single consonants as well as all consonant clusters. This is unlike gradation in the related Proto-Finnic and its descendants, where it applied only to a subset. The conditioning factor was the same, however: the weak grade occurred if the following syllable was closed, the strong grade if it was open. This difference was originally probably realized as length:
Gradation only applied after a stressed syllable; after an unstressed syllable all medial consonants appeared in the weak grade.
In sources on Proto-Sámi reconstruction, gradation is often assumed but not indicated graphically. In this article, when it is relevant and necessary to show the distinction, the weak grade is denoted with an inverted breve below the consonant(s): s : s̯, č : č̯, tt : t̯t̯, lk : l̯k̯.
After the phonematization of gradation due to loss of word-final sounds, Sámi varieties could be left with as many as four different contrastive degrees of consonant length. This has only been attested in some dialects of Ume Sámi. Most other Sámi varieties phonemically merged the weak grade of geminates with the strong grade of single consonants, leaving only three lengths. In some Sámi languages, other sound developments have left only two or three degrees occurring elsewhere.
An asymmetric system of four short and five long vowel segments can be reconstructed.
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Stress was not phonemic in Proto-Sámi. The first syllable of a word invariably received primary stress. Non-initial syllables of a word received secondary stress, according to a trochaic pattern of alternating secondarily-stressed and unstressed syllables. Odd-numbered syllables (counting from the start) were stressed, while even-numbered syllables were unstressed. The last syllable of a word was never stressed. Thus, a word could end in either a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (if the last syllable was even-numbered) or a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (if the last syllable was odd-numbered). This gave the following pattern, which could be extended indefinitely (P = primary stress, S = secondary stress, _ = no stress):
Because the four diphthongs could only occur in stressed syllables, and consonant gradation only occurred after a stressed syllable, this stress pattern led to alternations between vowels in different forms of the same word. These alternations survive in many Sámi languages in the form of distinct inflectional classes, with words with a stressed second-last syllable following the so-called "even" or "two-syllable" inflection, and words with an unstressed second-last syllable following the "odd" or "three-syllable" inflection. Weakening and simplification of non-final consonants after unstressed syllables contributed further to the alternation, leading to differences that are sometimes quite striking. For example:
| Form | Even-syllable stem "to live" |
Odd-syllable stem "to answer" | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proto-Sámi | Northern Sámi | Skolt Sámi | Proto-Sámi | Northern Sámi | Skolt Sámi | |
| Infinitive | *ealē-t̯ēk | ealli-t | jiẹˊlle-d | *vāstē-tē-t̯ēk | vásti-di-t | vaˊst-tee-d |
| First-person singular present indicative | *eal̯ā-m | ealá-n | jiẹˊlla-m | *vāstē-t̯ā-m | vásti-da-n | vaˊst-tää-m |
| First-person singular conditional | *eal̯ā-k̯ć̯i-m | ealá-ši-n | jiẹˊll-če-m | *vāstē-t̯ie-k̯ć̯i-m | vásti-dī-včče-n | vaˊst-teˊ-če-m |
| First-person singular potential | *eal̯ē-ń̯ć̯ë-m | ēle-ža-n | jiẹˊll-že-m | *vāstē-t̯ea-ń̯ć̯ë-m | vásti-dea-čča-n | vaˊst-teˊ-že-m |
In compounds, which consisted of a combination of several root words, each word retained the stress pattern that it had in isolation, so that that stress remained lexically significant (i.e. could theoretically distinguish compounds from non-compounds). The first syllable of the first part of a compound had the strongest stress, with progressively weaker secondary stress for the first syllables of the remaining parts.
![[icon]](https://akarinohon.com/text/taketori.cgi/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
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Nominals, i.e. nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns were systematically inflected for two numbers and ten cases. The personal pronouns and possessive suffixes also distinguished the dual number.
The cases included the core cases nominative, accusative and genitive; the local cases inessive, elative, illative; as well as essive, partitive, comitative and abessive.
| Case | Singular ending |
Plural ending |
Meaning/use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ∅ | *-k | Subject, object of imperative |
| Accusative | *-m | *-jtē | Object |
| Partitive | *-tē | Partial object, motion away | |
| Genitive | *-n | *-j | Possession, relation |
| Essive | *-nē | *-jnē | Being, acting as |
| Inessive | *-snē | Being at, on, inside | |
| Elative | *-stē | *-jstē | Motion from, off, out of |
| Illative | *-s̯ën | *-jtēs̯ën (N) *-jtē (S) *-j̯t̯ën (In) |
Motion towards, to, onto, into |
| Comitative | *-jnē *-jnë (In, Lu) |
*-j (+ *kuojmē) | With, in company of, by means of |
| Abessive | *-ptāk̯ëk | - | Without, lacking |
The case system shows some parallel developments with the Finnic languages. Like Finnic, the original Uralic locative *-na was repurposed as an essive, the ablative case *-ta became the partitive, and new locative cases were formed from these by infixing *-s-. Sámi lacks any equivalent to the Finnic "external" cases beginning with *-l-, however. Moreover, the earliest stages of Sámic appear to have used these cases only in the singular, as several of the singular cases do not have a formational counterpart in the plural:
Given the discrepancies in the plural locative cases, it is likely that this part of the case system was still partially in development during the late Proto-Sámi period, and developed in subtly different ways in the various descendants. In most Sámi languages, the case system has been simplified:
| Case | Person | Number | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
| Nominative | 1st | *-më | *-mën | *-mēk |
| 2nd | *-të | *-tën | *-tēk | |
| 3rd | *-sē | *-sēn | *-sēk | |
| Accusative | 1st | *-më | *-mën | *-mēk |
| 2nd | *-mtë | *-mtën | *-mtēk | |
| 3rd | *-msē | *-msēn | *-msēk | |
| Oblique | 1st | *-në | *-nën | *-nēk |
| 2nd | *-ntë | *-ntën | *-ntēk | |
| 3rd | *-ssē | *-ssēn | *-ssēk | |
| Present indicative |
Past indicative |
Imperative/ optative | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st singular | *-m | *-jëm | *-(k)ōmë |
| 2nd singular | *-k | *-jëk | *-k |
| 3rd singular | *-∅ | *-j | *-(k)ōsē |
| 1st dual | *-jēn | *-jmën | *-(k)ōmën |
| 2nd dual | ? | *-jtën | *-(kē)tēn |
| 3rd dual | *-pēn | *-jkV- (West) *-jnën (In) |
*-(k)ōsēn |
| 1st plural | *-pē | *-jmēk | *-(k)ōmēk |
| 2nd plural | ? | *-jtēk | *-(kē)tēk |
| 3rd plural | *-jēk | ? | *-(k)ōsēk |
| Connegative | *-k | - | *-k |
The following non-finite forms were also present:
The vocabulary reconstructible for Proto-Sámi has been catalogued by Lehtiranta (1989), who records approximately 1500 word rootsfor which either a pre-Sámi ancestry is assured, or whose distribution across the Sámi languages reaches at least from Lule Sámi to Skolt Sámi. Later work has increased the number of reconstructed words to 3421.[2]
Within this sample, loanwords from the Finnic and North Germanic languages already constitute major subsets of the language with 24% of the 3421 root words coming from North Germanic. One oddity is that the plurality of words, 35 percent are of uncertain origin, likely from a theorized group of languages called Proto-Laplandic.
Words describing natural elements such as reindeer or snow tend to be from of unknown origin but those for more modern things such as tools contain larger Germanic influence.
This approximate point of Pre-Sámi marks the introduction of the oldest Western Indo-European loanwords from Baltic and Germanic. Loans were also acquired from its southern relative Finnic, substituting the early Finnic sound *š with Sámi *ś. Likely contemporary to these were the oldest loanwords adapted from extinct Paleo-European substrate languages during the northwestward expansion of Pre-Sámi. Prime suspects for words of this origin include replacements of Uralic core vocabulary, or words that display consonant clusters that cannot derive from either PU or any known Indo-European source. A number of the later type can be found in the Finnic languages as well.
Examples:
Later consonant changes mostly involved the genesis of the consonant gradation system, but also the simplification of various consonant clusters, chiefly in loanwords.
A fairly late but major development within Sámi was a complete upheaval of the vowel system, which has been compared in scope to the Great Vowel Shift of English.
The previous changes left a system consisting of *i *e *ä *a *o *u in the first syllable in Pre-Sámi, and probably at least long *ī *ē *ū. In unstressed syllables, only *i *a *o were distinguished. The source of *o is unclear, although it is frequently also found in Finnic.
The table below shows the main correspondences:
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The processes that added up to this shift can be outlined as follows:
At this point, the vowel system consisted of only two short vowels *ɪ *ʊ in initial syllables, alongside the full complement of long vowels *ī *ē *ǟ *ā *ō *ū. In non-initial syllables, the vowels were *ɪ *ā *ō. After this, several metaphonic changes then occurred that rearranged the distribution of long vowels in stressed syllables.
Sammallahti (1998:182–183) suggests the following four phases:
The inventory of long vowels in stressed syllables now featured seven members: *ī *ē *ɛ̄ *ā *ɔ̄ *ō *ū. However, in native vocabulary *ē *ɛ̄ remained in complementary distribution: the closed-mid vowel only occurred before following *ɪ, the open-mid vowel only before following *ā, *ō.
Further changes then shifted the sound values of the unstressed syllables that had conditioned the above shift:
Lastly, a number of unconditional shifts adjusted the sound values of the vowel phonemes.
To what extent the two last changes should be dated to Proto-Sámi proper is unclear. Although all Sámi languages show these changes in at least some words, in Southern Sámi and Ume Sámi earlier *ī, *ɪ, *ʊ, *ū are regularly reflected as ij, i, u, uv in stressed open syllables. It is possible that these are archaisms, and shortening and lowering occurred only after the initial division of Proto-Sámi into dialects.[7][8] The effects of the vowel shift can be illustrated by the following comparison between Northern Sámi, and Finnish, known for retaining vowel values very close to Proto-Uralic. All word pairs correspond to each other regularly:
| (Post-)Proto-Uralic | Proto-Sámi | Northern Sámi | Finnish | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *kixi- | *kikë- | gihkat | kii-ma | PU, PS, NS: 'to rut' Fi: 'heat' |
| *nimi | *nëmë | namma | nimi | 'name' |
| *weri | *vërë | varra | veri | 'blood' |
| *mexi- | *miekë- | Skolt Sámi: miõkkâd |
myydä, myödä |
'to sell' |
| *käti | *kietë | giehta | käsi | 'hand' |
| *polwï | *puolvë | buolva | polvi | 'knee' |
| *elä- | *ealē- | eallit | elää | 'to live' |
| *äjmä | *ājmē | ájbmi | äimä | 'large needle' |
| *kala | *kuolē | guolli | kala | 'fish' |
| *kalanï | *kuolānë | guollán | kalani | 'my fish' |
| *wolka | *oalkē | oalgi | olka | 'shoulder' |
| *wolkajta | *oalkijtē | olggiid | olkia | 'of shoulders' |
| *muδa | *moδē | mođđi | muta | 'mud' |
| *suxi- | *sukë- | suhkat | sou-taa | 'to row' |
The main division among the Sámi languages is the split between eastern and western Sámi.
Changes that appear across the Eastern-Western divide are:
Innovations common to the Western Sámi languages:
The Southern West Sámi languages consist of Southern Sámi and Ume Sámi, and have a number of further innovations:[9]
The Northern West Sámi languages consist of Pite Sámi, Lule Sámi and Northern Sámi. They have one important common innovation:
Pite Sámi and Lule Sámi form their own smaller subgroup of shared innovations, which might be termed Northwestern West Sámi:[10]
Northern Sámi by itself has its own unique changes:
The Eastern Sámi languages have the following innovations:
The Mainland East Sámi languages, Inari Sámi, Skolt Sámi and Akkala Sámi, share further innovations:[11]
Skolt and Akkala Sámi moreover share:
Peninsular East (Kola) Sámi, consisting of Kildin Sámi and Ter Sámi, share:[11]
| Feature | South | Ume | Pite | Lule | North | Inari | Skolt | Akkala | Kildin | Ter | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *ë | i, e, a | a, o | a (o, e) | a | ë | ||||||
| *θ- | h | t | |||||||||
| *k̯C̯ | kC | vC | vC (ɣC) | vC | Weak grade of clusters *k̯t̯, *k̯c̯, *k̯ć̯, *k̯s̯, *k̯ś̯ | ||||||
| *śC | jhC | jhC (śC) | śC | Clusters *śn, *śt, *śk | |||||||
| *cC *ćC |
cC ćC |
sC śC |
cC (sC) ćC (śC) |
cC ćC |
Clusters *ck, *ćk, *ćm | ||||||
| *ŋv | *vg̊ | vv | |||||||||
| *ŋm | *mː → ʔm | ʔm (mː) | vm | ||||||||
| *N̯N̯ | ʔN | ʔN (Nː) | Nː | Weak grade of original geminate nasals | |||||||
| *N | Nː | (ʔN) | ʔN | ʔN (Nː) | Nː | Strong grade of original single nasals | |||||
| *PN | N | ʔN | ʔN (Nː) | Nː | Clusters *pm, *tn | ||||||
| *rN | rN | rhN | rʔN, rhN | rN | |||||||
| *NP | BB | BB | NB | Homorganic clusters *mp, *nt, *nc, *ńć, *ŋk | |||||||
| *mP | b̥B (mB) | b̥B | vB | b̥B | mB | Heterorganic clusters *mt, *mć, *mk | |||||
| *nm, *mn | BN (NN) | BN | NN | ||||||||
| *P | ʰPː | Pː | Strong grade of original single stops and affricates | ||||||||
| *Cˑ | Cː | Cː (Cˑ) | Cː | ? | |||||||
Reflexes in parentheses are retentions found in certain subdialects. In particular, in the coastal dialects of North Sámi (known as Sea Sámi), several archaisms have been attested, including a lack of pre-stopping of geminate nasals, a lack of *ś-vocalization, and a reflex /e/of*ë in certain positions. These likely indicate an earlier Eastern Sámi substratum.
In the history of Proto-Sámi, some sound changes were triggered or prevented by the nature of the vowel in the next syllable. Such changes continued to occur in the modern Sámi languages, but differently in each. Due to the similarity with Germanic umlaut, these phenomena are termed "umlaut" as well.
The following gives a comparative overview of each possible Proto-Sámi vowel in the first syllable, with the outcomes that are found in each language for each second-syllable vowel.
| Second vowel | *ā | *ō | *ē | *ë | *u | *i |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Southern | aa | ae | aa | åå | ee | |
| Ume | á | å̄ | ä | |||
| Pite | á | ä | ||||
| Lule | á | |||||
| Northern | á | |||||
| Inari | á | ä | a | |||
| Skolt | ä | äʹ | a | aʹ | ||
| Kildin | а̄ | оа | ||||
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