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Angler fish have a flap, or the illicium, towards the distal end of their body on their first of two dorsal fins which extends to the snout and acts as a luring mechanism where prey will approach in a face-to-face manner.[1] The illicium is moved back and forth by five distinct pairs of muscles: namely the shorter erector and depressor muscles that dictate movement of the illicial bone, along with inclinator, protractor, and retractor muscles that aid motion of the pterygiophore.[2]
Specifically considering Ctyptopsaras couesii, this deep sea ceratioid anglerfish has unique rotational biomechanics in their musculature. The robust retractor and protractor muscles move in a winding pattern in opposite directions along the length of the pterygiophore, which exists in a deep longitudinal ridge along the skull.[2] Further, the long and thin inclinator of the deep sea ceratioid anglerfish allows for a distinctly wide range of anterior and posterior motion, assisting in the movement of the luring apparatus to aid in the ambush of prey.[2]
Anglerfish's light organ, often referred to as a lure, makes use of a symbiotic relationship with extracellular luminous bacteria that result in bioluminescence.[3] Females found within most anglerfish families have bioluminescence, with the exception of those found within the Caulophrynidae and Neoceratiidae families.[4] Atypical of luminous symbionts that live outside of the host's cells, the bacteria found in the lure's of anglerfish are experiencing an evolutionary shift to smaller and less developed genomes (genomic reduction) assisted by transposon expansions. [3]
The bacterial symbionts are not found at consistent levels throughout stages of anglerfish development or throughout the different depths of the ocean. [5] Sequencing of larval organisms of the Ceratioidei suborder show an absence of bacterial symbionts, while sequencing of adult anglerfish showed higher levels of bioluminescent bacterial symbionts.[5] This correlates to the mesopelagic region having the highest levels of symbiont relationships in the anglerfish samples, as this is where adult anglerfish reside for most of their lives after their larval stage. [5]
Remove source #12 ("Camouflage". Retrieved 22 January 2018.). Not a scientifically reviewed article/website and it did not list citations for where it got its information. The sentence that cites it can be confirmed in a difference source which can replace it.[6]
Remove source #13 (O'Day, William T. (1974). Bacterial Luminescence in the Deep-Sea Anglerfish (PDF). LA: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County). The link did not work and was unable to find the site in a search to provide another link or verify the information. Where it is cited in the article is supported by claims in another source (#14) so no need to edit the text.
Remove source #26 (Gould, Stephen Jay (1983). Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-393-01716-8.) It is outdated and the information on the male connecting to the female can be confirmed by another source.[7]
Remove source #27 (Theodore W. Pietsch (1975). "Precocious sexual parasitism in the deep sea ceratioid anglerfish, Cryptopsaras couesi Gill". Nature. 256 (5512): 38–40. Bibcode:1975Natur.256...38P. doi:10.1038/256038a0. S2CID 4226567). This information on sexual dimorphism can be confirmed in the source just added above to replace #26.[7]
Remove source #28 (Greenpeace International Seafood Red list Archived 20 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine). It is very outdated and can be confirmed in newer sources.[8]
Remove source #33 ("Goosefish". All the Sea. Retrieved 20 April 2012). The page linked was not found and no information other than the title was given in the citation. The information on the Lophiidae family human consumption is confirmed in alternative sources. Therefore, we can revise this section to say: "In Africa, the countries of Namibia and the Republic of South Africa record the highest catches.[9] In Asia, especially Japan, monkfish liver, known as ankimo, is considered a delicacy.[10] Anglerfish is especially heavily consumed in South Korea, where it is featured as the main ingredient in dishes such as Agujjim."
Source #30 had no link and appears outdated but I was able to find this source which may confirm the statement. However, potentially there are newer sources to look into with similar information.
Dragonfish of the Stomiidae family are characterized by their bioluminescent barbels, which act as lures for prey and are a species-specific structure.[11] These barbels extend anteriorly off the bottom jaw, and prey attracted to its bioluminescence include lanternfish and bristlemouths. [12]It is proposed that the specificity of bioluminescent barbel structure to certain species allows for advantageous same-species recognition that promotes genetic isolation, in addition to allowing scientists to more easily identify distinct species due to anatomical barbel differences. [13] According to Davis et al., the diversity observed among species of Stomiidae is exceptional considering their clad age.[13] Further, sexual dimorphism of bioluminescence in dragonfish contributes to even greater diversity within the species, but the greater abundance of immature specimens within research collections makes studying sexual dimorphism challenging.[11]
In addition to a bioluminescent barbel, members of the Stomiidae family have a blue light emitting photophore in the postorbital region.[14] Some dragonfish, such as the Malacosteus niger, also have a unique red light emitting photophore in the suborbital region. [14] It is thought that the mechanism of red bioluminescence produced by the suborbital photophore is facilitated by energy transmission and is chemically similar to the blue bioluminescence of the barbel.[14] While suborbital photophores that emit red bioluminescence are particularly helpful for finding prey, since many organisms in the deep sea can only see blue light, it appears as though this red light emission by dragonfish is not directly associated with prey choice, and it is thus hypothesized that it may be used for intraspecific communication.[14] This raises an interesting question of to what extent the red bioluminescence determines dragonfish prey choice.
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Dragonfish of the Stomiidae family use blue bioluminescence for communication, camouflage, and as a luring mechanism.[1] They emit shortwave blue bioluminescence from postorbital photophores and from a long, slender appendage on the chin, called the barbel. [4]. The shaft of the barbel is composed of cylindrical muscles, blood vessels and nervous fibers. At the bulb of the barbel is a single photophore. The catecholamine adrenaline is found in the connective tissue within the stem.[2] One hypothesis regarding barbel control is that adrenaline innervation may control both the movement of the barbel and its production of bioluminescence. Data from a study performed on specimens of the Stomias boa species agree with this hypothesis because the barbels produced light emissions following exposure to external adrenaline.[2]
The loose jaw dragonfishes, which include species from Aristostomias, Malacosteus, and Pachystomias, have the ability to detect and produce red bioluminescence.[1] This is made possible by far-red emitting photophores located under the eye and rhodopsins that are sensitive to long-wave emissions.[4] This red bioluminescence is used to illuminate prey and to detect other far-red dragonfishes, because it goes undetected by most other species.[4] The species with far-red emitting photophores differ in morphology and behavior from most other dragonfish species. For example, the barbels of these species are more simple in structure than those of other dragonfishes.[1] They also differ in foraging strategies. While most dragonfishes that produce shortwave blue bioluminescence undergo regular diel vertical migrations, this is not seen in those with far-red emissions. The foraging strategy they undergo involves remaining in the deep-sea and emitting far-red bioluminescence to illuminate a small area and search for prey.[1] Although Malacosteus, Pachystomias, and Aristostomias all have suborbital photophores that produce red bioluminescence, there are differences in the suborbital photophores between these three genera, in their shape, color, flash duration, and maximum emission. [3].
