Contents

Arab Spring

2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests
Tahrir Square in Egypt – February 9, 2011 Protests
Date	December 18, 2010 (2010-12-18)–present
Location	Middle East and North Africa (see list of countries)
Caused by	Dictatorship, sectarianism, human rights violations, government corruption, economic downfall, unemployment, extreme poverty, demographic structural factors[1](see section {{Section link}}: required section parameter(s) missing)
Methods	Civil disobedience, civil resistance, demonstrations, protest camps, rebellion, uprising, revolution, self-immolations, strike actions, urban warfare, online activism
Status	Ongoing (as of 4 April 2011[update]) Tunisia's president Ben Ali ousted, and government overthrown. Egypt's president Hosni Mubarak ousted and government overthrown. Libya in an armed conflict and foreign intervention in the form of a no-fly zone. Jordan, Oman, Syria and Yemen going through government changes. Algeria, Bahrain, Iraq, Palestine Territories, Saudi Arabia, etc have ongoing protests.
Casualties
Death(s)	3,400–9,400+ (International estimate; see table below)

The 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests, also known as the Arab Spring, are a revolutionary waveofdemonstrations and protests which have been taking place in the Middle East and North Africa since 18 December 2010. To date, there have been revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt; a civil war in Libya; major protests in Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Djibouti, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Oman and Yemen; and minor protests in Kuwait, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Western Sahara.^{[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]} The protests have shared techniques of civil resistance in sustained campaigns involving strikes, demonstrations, marches and rallies, as well as the use of social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, to organize, communicate, and raise awareness in the face of state attempts at repression and Internet censorship.^[13]

Overview

This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

The demonstrations and uprisings in the region have been called the Arab Uprising,^{[14][15][16][17][18][19]} although some of the countries affected are not part of the Arab world. The protests began on 18 December 2010 in Tunisia, following Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation in protest of police corruption and ill-treatment.^[20][21] Due to similar hardships in the region and the protests' ultimate success in Tunisia, a chain of unrest began that includes protests in Algeria, Jordan, Egypt, and Yemen,^[22] and to a lesser degree in other, mostly Arab, states. In many cases the climactic days have been termed^[23] "day of rage" or some variation thereof.^[24][25] The protests in the region have also affected unrest outside the region.

To date, demonstrations have resulted in the overthrow of two heads of state: Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution led President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to flee to Saudi Arabia on 14 January, and in Egypt, President Hosni Mubarak, who had ruled Egypt for 30 years, resigned 18 days after the onset of massive protests that began on 25 January. Around the same time, Jordan's King Abdullah named a new prime minister^[26] and the president of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, announced that he would not seek another term in office in 2013, after what would then be 35 years of rule.^[27] During the ongoing uprising against Libyan strongman Muammar Gaddafi, Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir announced that he would not seek re-election in 2015.^[28] Despite Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki's announcement that he would not seek re-election in 2014,^[29] there have been increasingly violent demonstrations urging him to resign.^[30]

Both the volatility of the protests^[31] and their profound geopolitical implications have drawn global attention and excitement.^[32] As a result, there is the possibility that protesters may be nominated for the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize.^[33]

Template:2010–2011 MENA protests HTK

Summary of protests by country

Country	Date started	Date finished	Type(s) of protests	Outcome	Death toll	Result
Tunisia	18 December 2010		Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation; Nationwide protest; occupation of public spaces	• Ouster of President Ben Ali [34] and Prime Minister Ghannouchi  • Dissolution of the political police and the former ruling party  • Release of political prisoners[35]	223+[36][37]	Revolution
Algeria	28 December 2010		Self-immolations; major protests; riots; road-blockings	• Lifting of 19-year-old state of emergency[38][39]	8[40]	Minor protests
Lebanon	12 January 2011		Protests; clashes between riot police and pro-Saad Hariri supporters.		0[41]	Minor protests
Libya	13 January 2011		Nationwide protests; armed revolt; occupation of cities; civil war	• Opposition forces seize control of numerous Libyan cities[42][43][44]  • Formation of the National Transitional Council[45][46]  • UN-mandated NATO, Qatari and UAE intervention in support of the rebels[47]	2,000–8,000 [48][48]	Armed conflict
Jordan	14 January 2011		Minor protests and demonstrations	• King Abdullah II dismisses Prime Minister Rifai and his cabinet[49]	1[50]	Governmental changes
Mauritania	17 January 2011		Self-immolation, protests[51]		1[52]	Minor protests
Sudan	17 January 2011		Minor protests	• President Bashir announces he will not seek another term in 2015[53]	1[54]	Minor protests
Oman	17 January 2011		Major protests	• Economic concessions by Sultan Qaboos[55][56][57][58]  • Dismissal of ministers[59][60]  • Granting of lawmaking powers to Oman's elected legislature[61]	2–6[62][63][64]	Governmental changes
Yemen	18 January 2011		Nationwide protest; riots[65]	• President Saleh announces he will not seek another term in 2013[66]  • Resignation of MPs from the ruling party[67]  • Political concessions by President Saleh	270+[68]	Governmental changes
Saudi Arabia	21 January 2011		Self-immolation; minor demonstrations; frequent medium-scale (100-1000 people) protests in Eastern Province[69][70][71]	• Economic concessions by King Abdullah[72][73]  • Men-only municipal elections to be held 22 September 2011[74][75]	2[citation needed]	Minor protests
Egypt	25 January 2011		Self-immolations; nationwide protests; occupation of public spaces; attacks on official buildings	• Ouster of President Mubarak and Prime Minister Ahmed Shafik[76]  • Assumption of power by the Armed Forces[77]  • Suspension of the Constitution, dissolution of the Parliament[78]  • Disbanding of state security force[79]	684–840 [80]	Revolution
Syria	26 January 2011		Self-immolation, major demonstrations	• Release of political prisoners[81][82]  • Sacking of a Provincial Governor[83]  • Resignation of the Government[84]	171+[85]	Governmental changes
Djibouti	28 January 2011		Minor protests; occupation of main public spaces	• Arrest of opposition leaders	2[86]	Minor protests
Morocco	30 January 2011		Self-immolation; minor protests;[87] attacks on properties[88]	• Political concessions by King Mohammed VI[89]  • Referendum on constitutional reforms	6[citation needed]	Minor protests
Iraq	10 February 2011		Self-immolation; major protests; riots; attacks on official buildings[90]	• Prime Minister Maliki will not run for a 3rd term[91]  • Resignation of provincial governors and local authorities[92]	35[citation needed]	Major protests
Bahrain	14 February 2011		Major demonstrations; occupation of public spaces	• Economic concessions by King Hamad[93]  • Release of political prisoners[94]  • Dismissal of ministers[95]  • GCC intervention at the request of the Government of Bahrain	24[96]	Major protests
Iran	14 February 2011		Major protests	• Arrest of opposition leaders	3[97]	Major protests
Kuwait	18 February 2011		Protests; clashes between riot police and "bidoons (bedouns)"	• Resignation of Government	0[98]	Minor protests
Western Sahara	20 February 2011		Minor protests[99][100][101]		1[102]	Minor protests
Total death toll:	3,400–9,400+ (ongoing)

Background

Motivations

Numerous factors have led to the protests, including dictatorshiporabsolute monarchy, human rights violations, government corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables),^[103] economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors,^[104] such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youth within the population.^[105] In all Northern African and Gulf countries, the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades, insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to continue to accept this, are the detonators of the revolt in the Gulf and elsewhere in the Arab world.^[106] Increasing food prices and rates of famine globally have also been a major reason, involving threats to food security worldwide and prices approaching levels seen during the 2007–2008 world food price crisis.^[107] In recent decades rising living standards and literacy rates and an expansion in higher education have resulted in an improved human development index in the affected countries. The tension between rising aspirations and a lack of government reform may have been a contributing factor to all of the protests.^{[106][108][109]} For this educated and internet connected wave of youth, many having studied in western countries, autocrats and absolute monarchy are anachronisms. A university professor of Oman, Al-Najma Zidjaly has also called this upheaval youthquake.^[106]

Tunisia and Egypt, the first to witness major uprisings, differ from other Northern African and Persian Gulf countries such as Algeria and Libya, by their lack of significant oil revenue which allowed the former to quickly make certain concessions to calm the masses.^[106]

Recent history

The current wave of protests are not isolated in history, rather they are part of a larger chain of dissident activists and citizens from numerous social and union organizations and individuals that have been active for years in Tunisia, Western Sahara, Algeria, and Egypt, along with other countries.^[110]

In Tunisia, there was a rise of conflict where the country experienced a series of outbreaks over the past three years. The most notable of which was an uprising in the mining area of Gafsa in 2008. These protests continued for many months through rallies, sit-ins and strikes, during which two were struck dead, an unspecified number were wounded, and dozens were arrested.^{[110][111][112]}

In Egypt, the labor movement has been strong for years. There have been more than 3,000 labor actions since 2004.^[113] The most important of which was an attempted workers strike on 6 April 2008, at the state-run textile factories of al-Mahalla al-Kabra just outside Cairo. The idea spread elsewhere in the country, promoted by computer-literate working class youths and their supporters among middle-class college students.^[113] A Facebook page was set up to promote the strike and attracted tens of thousands of followers. The government mobilized to break the strike through infiltrating and riot police. Although the regime had some success in forestalling a successful strike, an "April 6 Committee" of youths and labor activists was formed and were among the major forces calling for the big demonstration on 25 January in Tahrir Square.^[113]

In Algeria, many issues have been building for years. In February 2008, United States Ambassador Robert Ford wrote in a leaked diplomatic cable that Algeria is "unhappy", with long-standing political alienation and social discontent throughout the country with strikes over food almost weekly, and a demonstration occurring every day somewhere in the country, and calling the Algerian government corrupt and fragile.^[114] It has been claimed that during 2010, there were as many as "9,700 riots and unrests" throughout the country.^[115] Some protests were about issues such as education and health care, as well as rampant corruption.^[116]

In Western Sahara, the Gdeim Izik protest camp was erected on 9 October 2010, 12 km south-east of El Aaiún, by a group of young Sahrawis with the intention to protest against labor discrimination, lack of jobs, looting of resources, and human rights abuses".^[117] Its population was estimated between 12,000 and 20,000 inhabitants. On 8 November 2010, the protest camp was evicted and destroyed by Moroccan security forces, who faced strong opposition from some young Sahrawi civilians. Riots spread to El Aaiún and other towns of the territory, causing an unknown number of deaths and injuries.

The major turning point to cause the current escalation of protests was the self-immolations of individuals, starting with Mohamed Bouazizi, which catalyzed a pull of attraction for various groups dissatisfied with the existing system: the unemployed, political and human rights activists, labor, trade unionists, students, professors, lawyers, and more.^[110] This and other self-immolations have caused dispersed groups to unite under a common unprecedented movement that gained enough momentum to create the current scope of events.

Tunisian revolution

Following the self-immolation of Mohamed BouaziziinSidi Bouzid, a series of increasingly violent street demonstrations through December 2010 ultimately led to the ousting of longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali on 14 January 2011. The demonstrations were precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,^[118] a lack of freedom of speech and other forms of political freedom^[119] and poor living conditions. The protests constituted the most dramatic wave of social and political unrest in Tunisia in three decades^[120][121] and have resulted in scores of deaths and injuries, most of which were the result of action by police and security forces against demonstrators. Ben Ali fled to exile in Saudi Arabia, ending 23 years in power.^[64][122]

Following Ben Ali's departure, a state of emergency was declared and caretaker coalition government was created, including members of Ben Ali's party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) as well as opposition figures in other ministries, however, the five newly appointed non-RCD ministers resigned^[123][124] almost immediately. As a result of continued daily protests, on 27 January Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi reshuffled the government, removing all former RCD members other than himself and the former ruling party was suspended on 6 February^[125] and later, on 9 March, dissolved.^[126] Following further public protests, Ghannouchi himself resigned on 27 February, and Beji Caid el Sebsi became Prime Minister.

Egyptian revolution

Following the uprising in Tunisia, current potential presidential candidate Mohamed ElBaradei warned of a "Tunisia-style explosion" in the country before he became a central figure in Egypt's current politics.^[127]

Protests in Egypt began on 25 January and ran for 18 days. Starting at around midnight on 28 January, the Egyptian government almost entirely cut off the country from internet access to impede the ability of the protesters to organize using social media.^[128] Later that day, as tens of thousands protested on the streets of Egypt's major cities, President Mubarak formally fired his government and appointed a new one. Mubarak also appointed the first Vice President in almost 30 years.^{[citation needed]} On February 2nd, pro-Mubarak activists led a counter-protest that turned violent.^{[citation needed]} Many international journalists complained of harassment and one local journalist was killed in the protests.^{[citation needed]}

On February 10, Mubarak ceded all Presidential power to Vice President Omar Suleiman, but announced that he would remain as President, wanting to finish his term.^[129] However, protests continued the next day before which Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned from the presidency and transferred all power to the Armed Forces of Egypt.^[130] Immediately after, the now-ruling military dissolved the Egyptian Parliament, suspended the Constitution of Egypt, and promised to lift the thirty-year "emergency laws" of the country and to force free, open elections within the next six months, or by the end of the year.^{[citation needed]}

States and ordinary citizens in places across the world either expressed solidarity with the protests or were cautious. A few states in the region were supportive of Mubarak holding on to power.^{[citation needed]}

On 21 February, David Cameron, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, became the first world leader to visit Egypt since Mubarak was ousted as the president 10 days previously. A U.K. media blackout was lifted as the prime minister landed in Cairo for a brief five-hour stopover hastily added at the start of a planned tour of the Middle East.^[131]

Libyan Civil war

Anti-government protests in Libya started on 15 February 2011. By 18 February, most of Benghazi, the country's second-largest city, was controlled by the opposition. At this stage, elite troops and mercenaries were sent by the government to retake the town, but they were repelled. At the time, it was estimated that at least 6,000 had been killed since the violence began. Protests had spread to the capital Tripoli by 20 February, which led to a television address by Seif al-Islam Gaddafi, who warned the protestors that their country may descend into civil war. The rising death toll, which currently numbers in the thousands, has drawn international condemnation, with several Libyan diplomats resigning and calling for the regime to be dismantled.

Aninterim government in opposition to Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi's continued rule was established in Benghazi on 26 February 2011 amidst ongoing efforts by demonstrators and rebel forces to wrest control of Tripoli from the jamahiriya.^[132][133] Fighting broke out during February, and despite initial opposition success, government forces were ascendant, taking back much of the Mediterranean coast. On 19 March 2011, a no-fly zone over Libya was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973.

Since the no-fly zone was established and international forces began bombing pro-Gadaffi assets, rebels have made quick progress back along the northern seaboard, capturing previously lost cities Ajdabiya, Brega and Ra's Lanouf, and capturing previously unheld cities such as those on the road to Sirte. However, pro-government forces have now retaken many of these cities and the rebels have retreated significantly. They are now about where they were when the UN first voted to implement a no-fly zone.

Other countries affected

Concurrently with the events in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya, violent protests flared up in the region, resulting in various political changes in a number of countries.

Algeria

On 29 December, clashes with police occurred in Algiers, Algeria, over protests about the lack of housing. At least 53 people were reported to have been injured and another 29 were arrested. In total, three demonstrators were killed, more than 800 people were wounded, and at least 1,100 were arrested.

From 12–19 January, a wave of self-immolation attempts swept the country, beginning with Mohamed Aouichia, who set himself on fire in Bordj Menaiel in protest at his family's housing. On 13 January, Mohsen Bouterfif set himself on fire after a meeting with the mayor of Boukhadra in Tebessa who was unable to offer Bouterfif a job and a house. Bouterfif was reported to have died a few days later; about 100 youths protested his death, causing the provincial governor to dismiss the mayor. At least ten other self-immolation attempts were reported that week. On 22 January the RCD party organised a demonstration for democracy in Algiers attended by about 300 people, illegal under the State of Emergency in force since 1992; it was suppressed by the police, with 42 injuries. On 29 January, at least ten thousand people marched in the northeastern city of Béjaïa.^[134]

On 3 February, President Abdelaziz Bouteflika announced that the 19-year state of emergency would be lifted in the very near future in an apparent bid to stave off unrest,^[135] a promise fulfilled on 22 February, when Algeria's cabinet adopted an order to lift the state of emergency.^[136][137]

On 5 February, a major "illegal" march was scheduled for the 12th of the month.^[138] On 11 February, nearly 2000 pro-democracy protesters clashed with police forces at the central May 1 square. The government had imposed a ban on all opposition rallies but protesters seemed determined to come out on the streets. Reports claim that the police have blocked all entry points into the capital and are arresting activists. Some feel that Algeria could be the next country after Egypt to see change, but analysts believe the government will silence the protests with its oil and gas wealth.^[139][140]

Bahrain

The 2011 Bahraini protests are a series of demonstrations in the Gulf country of Bahrain. The Bahraini protests were initially aimed at achieving greater political freedom and respect for human rights, without threatening the monarchy.^[141] The protests began in Bahrain on 14 February^[141] and were largely peaceful until a night raid on 17 February by police against protestors sleeping at Pearl RoundaboutinManama, in which police killed three protestors.^[142][143] Following the deadly 17 February night raid, the protestors' aims expanded to a call to end the monarchy.^[144] As of 18 February 2011^[update], six people have been killed and hundreds injured.^[143] The death toll continues to rise as Bahraini police and military attempt to disperse protesting crowds using tear gas, rubber bullets, and live ammunition.^[145] Bahraini army tanks moved in to quash street protests and blocked the Pearl roundabout specifically (which protesters had planned to convert into Bahrain's Tahrir Square) apart from entries and exits into Manama. The hospital where the dead protesters and mourners have gathered is still very much untouched.^[146][147] After the violent crackdown, protesters started calling for overthrow of the Bahraini King and not just the Prime Minister.^[148] On 18 February, government forces opened fire on protesters, mourners and news journalists.^[149] On 19 February, protesters occupied Pearl Square after Bahrain's government orders troops and then police to withdraw.^{[150][151][152]} On 22 February, an estimated one hundred thousand people, one fifth of the population of the country, marched. On 14 March, at the request of the Crown Prince, GCC troops led by Saudi Arabia entered the country, opening fire using live rounds against protesters. Several were killed, with over 2,000 injured. Live videos showed soldiers and police killing unarmed civilians in broad daylight, and even preventing wounded from reaching hospitals for medical care.

Djibouti

Protests started on 3 February when three hundred people protested peacefully against President Ismail Omar GuellehinDjibouti City asking him not to run for another term and also for more liberty and for political and social reform.^[153] Protests quickly increased with thousands ralling against the president, staying until their demands were met. The demonstrations escalated into clashes with many being arrested and/or killed/wounded. On 19 and 24 February, protest leaders were arrested and after the failure of the leaders to turn up on the 24th, opposition leader Bourhan Mohammed Ali stated he feared the protests had lost momentum.^[154] The last protest was planned for March 11, but security forces stopped the protest and detained 4 opposition leaders, no protests or planned protests have occured since.

Iran

The 32nd anniversary of the Iranian Revolution was said to have had a low turnout on 11 February 2011. (The state-run Kayhan newspaper claimed a 50 million turnout, despite Iran having a population of only 75 million.) At the behest of Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi, opposition leaders called for nationwide protest marches for 14 February. Rumours suggested that the protesters would include university students, lorry drivers and gold merchants from across the country under the umbrella opposition known as the Green movement in what manifested from inspiration due to the recent events in Egypt and Tunisia. The Revolutionary Guard said it would forcefully confront protesters.^[155] Opposition activists and aides to Mousavi and Karroubi had been arrested in the days before the protests.

The opposition protesters used a similar tactic from the 2009 protests in which they chanted "Allahu Akbar" and "Death to the dictator" into the early morning hours. However, rather than using slogans praising Mousavi like in 2009, protestors have been widely chanting "Mubarak, Ben Ali, Now its time for Seyed Ali [Khamenei]". Reports from the demonstrations of 14 February describe clashes between protesters and security forces in Tehran, where 10,000 security forces had been deployed to prevent protesters from gathering at Azadi Square, where the marches, originating from Enghelab, Azadi and Vali-Asr streets, were expected to converge. Police reportedly fired tear gas and used pepper spray and batons to disperse protesters. Clashes were also reported in Isfahan.^[156] It was reported up to a third of a million protesters marched in Tehran alone on 14 February.^[157]

Iraq

In an effort to prevent potential unrest, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki announced that he will not run for a third term in 2014.^[158] Nevertheless, hundreds of protesters gathered in several major Iraqi urban areas on 12 February (notably Baghdad and Karbala) demanding a more effective approach to the issue of national security and investigation into federal corruption cases, as well as government action towards making public services fair and accessible.^{[159][160][161]} In response, the government of Iraq subsidised electricity costs.^[162] Israel's Haaretz reported that a 31-year-old man in Mosul died after he self-immolated in protest against unemployment. Haaretz also reported a planned "Revolution of Iraqi Rage" to be held on 25 February near the Green Zone.^[163]

On 16 February, up to 2,000 protesters took over a provincial council building in the city of Kut. The protesters demanded the provincial governor resign due to a lack of basic services such as electricity and water. Up to three people were reported killed and 30 injured.^{[citation needed]} On 24 February, Hawijah, Mosul and Baghdad featured violent protests.^[164]

Jordan

On 14 January, protests took place in Jordan's capital Amman, and at Ma'an, Al Karak, Salt and Irbid, and other cities. The protests, led by trade unionists and leftist parties, came after Friday prayers, and called for the government led by Prime Minister Samir Rifai to step down. They chanted anti-government slogans and called Rifai a "coward". One banner in the protest read "Jordan is not only for the rich. Bread is a red line. Beware of our starvation and fury," while protesters chanted "Down with Rifai's government. Unify yourselves because the government wants to eat your flesh. Raise fuel prices to fill your pocket with millions." Tawfiq al-Batoush, a former head of the Karak municipality, said: "We are protesting the policies of the government, high prices and repeated taxation that made the Jordanian people revolt."^[165] The Muslim Brotherhood and 14 trade unions said they would hold a sit-down protest outside parliament the next day to "denounce government economic policies". Parallels were drawn with the Tunisian protests.^[166]

The Jordanian government reversed a fuel price rise following the protest.^[167] Al Jazeera stated that protests are expected to continue for several weeks because of increasing food prices.^[167]

On 21 January, 5,000 people in Amman took part in the largest protest so far.^[168]

On 1 February, the Royal Palace announced that King Abdullah dismissed the government as a consequence of the street protests and asked Marouf al-Bakhit, a former army general, to form a new Cabinet.^[169] King Abdullah told Bakhit his authority will be to "take quick, concrete and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process". The reforms should put Jordan on the path "to strengthen democracy", and provide Jordanians with the "dignified life they deserve", the monarch said.^[170]

On 25 February, 10,000 protestors took to the streets of Amman to demand the right of voting the prime minister and the dissolving of the parliament.

Morocco

According to a media report, Moroccan authorities approved the anti-government protest being planned on the popular social networking site Facebook. The same report said that the plan to organize an Egypt-style anti-government protest on 20 February by several Moroccan youth movements had apparently been welcomed by the government.^[171][172]

On 20 February, at least 37,000 of Moroccans rallied in the capital, Rabat, to demand that King Mohammed give up some of his powers.^[173] For about a week things had quieted down however about 1000 people demanding political reforms demonstrated in Casablanca on 26 February, according to AFP.^[174]

On 9 March, in a live televised address, King Mohammed VI announced his decision to undertake a comprehensive constitutional reform aimed at improving democracy and the rule of law. A commission to work on the constitutional revisions will be formed, with proposals to be made to him by June after which a referendum would be held on the draft constitution.^[175]

On 20 March, at least 20,000 of people,^[176] among them many Islamists, participated in peaceful protests in more than 60 cities across the country, some demanding more political changes than what was announced by King Mohammed in his 9 March address, while others wanting to keep up the pressure so the reforms come about.^[177] The police did not intervene and no violent acts were reported.

Oman

In the Gulf country of Oman, 200 protesters marched on 17 January 2011, demanding salary increases and lower costs of living. The protest shocked news reporters who have viewed Oman as a "politically stable and sleepy country".^[178]

Renewed protests occurred on 18 February, inspired by the unrest in Bahrain. 350 protesters demanded an end to corruption and better distribution of oil revenue.^[179] The protesters also carried signs with slogans of support for the Sultan.^[180]

On 26 February, protesters occurred in Sohar calling for more jobs.^[181] In the following day, tension escalated with protesters burned shops and cars^[182] and police responding using tear gas to contain and disperse the protesters.^[183] Demonstrations have also spread to the region of Salalah, where protesters have been reported to being camped outside the provincial governor's house since 25 February.^[183][184]

There were witness claims of two protesters being killed in Sohar as police fired rubber bullets to disperse crowds.^{[62][63][64][185]} Also, witness report that protesters have burnt a police station in Sohar as well as the Wali's house (Where the representative of the Sultan to Sohar stays).^[186]

The Omani protesters insist they are not challenging the rule of Sultan Qaboos, who has been in power since 1970, but are merely calling for jobs and reform.^[187] The protesters even apologized to the Sultan for letting violence rattle the city of Sohar on 28 February 2011.^[188]

The Sultan carried on with his reform campaign: dissolving the Ministry of National Economy completely, setting up a State audit committee, granting student and unemployment benefits^[189] and almost completely dismissing scores of ministers and reshuffling his cabinet three times.^[190] Apart from this nearly 50,000 jobs are to be created in the public sector (including 10000 jobs in the Royal Oman Police^[191]). On the directives of the Omani Ministry of Manpower, various companies (both private and public) in Oman came out with their own heavy employment plans. The Royal Army of Oman has also initiated employment drives by publishing recruitment advertisements in newspapers, etc.^[192]

Syria

Protests in Syria started on 26 January and were influenced by other protests in the region; on the same day, one case of self-immolation was reported. Protesters have been calling for political reforms and the reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the state of emergency which has been in place since 1963.^[193] One attempt at a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, though it ended up uneventful.^[194][195]

On March 15, demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria. Thousands of protestors gathered in Damascus, Aleppo, al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and Hama.^{[196][197][198][199]} Recently released politician Suhair Atassi became an unofficial spokesperson for the "Syrian revolution"^{[200][201][202][203]} Atassi paid tribute to "the Syrian people who took the initiative ahead of the opposition," recalling the popular uprisings that shook Tunisia and Egypt. After the first day of the protests there were reports of approximately 3000 arrests and a few "martyrs", but there are no official figures on the number of deaths.^[204]

On 16 March, Syrian authorities forcibly dispersed a demonstration in front of the Syrian Interior Ministry. al-Arabiya reported that protesters were a mix of activists and jurists, writers, journalists, young academics and family members to people detained in Syrian prisons.^{[205][206][207]} The security forces arrested a number of protestors, Al Jazeera reported 25,^[208] while Al Arabiya said 32^[209] including activist and lawyer Suhair Atassi and Kamal Cheikho, an activist who was released two days earlier.^{[210][211][212]} Mohamed al-Ali, a spokesman for the Syrian Interior authority denied that it has happened any demonstrations in Syria and that the Facebook campaign has been proved unsuccessful. According to the spokesperson, the "claimed protests" consisted of a few people who were "hiding" among the already packed souq and tried to make it look like a demonstration.^[213] In another statement, he went further by saying that the demonstration which was outside the Interior authority was actually in support of President Bashar al-Assad.^[214]

On 18 March, thousands of protesters in several Syrian cities set to streets after the Friday prayers and chanted "God, Syria, Freedom, that's enough", challenging the classical pro-regime slogan "God, Syria, Bashar that is enough". In Damascus, security forces broke into the Omayyad Mosque and attacked protesters violently. Several people were injured, and several others were arrested. In the southern city of Daraa, people chanted against Rami Makhlouf, the cousin of the Syrian president. The regime replied by sending helicopters and water cannons. At least three people were killed by security forces.^[215]

On 22 March, as a result of the protests, the Governor of Daraa was fired,^[216] but this did not mollify the protesters. Demonstrations increased, and on 24 March, it was reported that hundreds had been killed.^[217] in marches at Daara that exceeded 20,000.

On 29 March, the entire Syrian cabinet resigned as a concession to protesters.^[218]

Yemen

Protests occurred in many towns in both the north and south of Yemen starting in mid-January. Protesters initially protested against governmental proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen, unemployment and economic conditions^[219] and corruption.^[220] Their demands increased to calls for President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who has been facing internal opposition from his closest advisors since 2009,^[221] to resign.^{[65][220][222]} A major demonstration of over 16,000 protestors took place in Sana'a on 27 January^[223] and human rights activist and politician Tawakel Karman called for a "Day of Rage" on 3 February.^[224] Xinhua News said that a million protesters were called for.^[225] In response to the planned protest, Ali Abdullah Saleh stated that he will not seek another presidential term in 2013.^[226] On 3 February, 20,000 people protested against the government in Sana'a,^[227][228] others protested in Aden,^[229] in a "Day of Rage" called for by Tawakel Karman,^[224] while soldiers, armed members of the General People's Congress and many protestors held a pro-government rally in Sana'a.^[230] Concurrent with the resignation of Egyptian president Mubarak, Yemenis again took to the streets protesting President Saleh on 11 February in what has been dubbed a "Friday of Rage".^[231] The protests continued the days following despite clashes with government advocates.^[232]

In a "Friday of Anger" on 18 February, tens of thousands of Yemenis have taken part in anti-government demonstrations in the cities of Sana'a, Taiz and Aden. In the capital, Sana'a, the crowd marched towards the Presidential Palace, chanting anti-government slogans, despite riot police attempting to stop them from doing so. Three people have been killed in the demonstrations; one of them was killed by a hand grenade in the city of Taiz. Reports of gunfire in Aden during a rally as riots flared overnight, with protesters setting fire to a local government building and security forces killing one demonstrator.

On 19 February, Yemeni riot police shot and killed one protester and injured at least five as thousands of protesters gathered in the capital Sana'a for a ninth day of protests.^[233]

On 8 March, Army troops join protesters in Yemen.^[234] About one million people have staged a protest in southern Yemen, as forces loyal to President Ali Abdullah Saleh have killed a boy and injured several others.^[235]

On 11 March, on the so dubbed "Friday of no return" protestors called for the ousting of President Ali Abdullah SalehinSana'a where 3 people were killed. More protests were held in other cities such as Al Mukalla where a person was killed.

Many important figures in the General People's Congress and in the President's Cabinet have resigned as a sign of protest against President Ali Abdullah Saleh.

In response, on March 23, the General People's Congress declared a state of emergency and suspended the constitution, forshadowing a higher level of strife.

Other regional incidents

Other countries in the region, where the protests, particularly in Tunisia and Egypt, have inspired various other incidents:

 • InKuwait, the EmirofKuwait Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah gave all "its citizens [1.12 million people] free food rations and a grant of $4,000 [1,000 dinars]".^[236] Officially the grant is in commemoration of "the 20th anniversary of Kuwait's liberation from occupying Iraqi forces and which also marks the 50th anniversary of the state's independence."^[237] Dozens of stateless Arabs demonstrated in Kuwait on 19 February^[238] and opposition groups called for protests on 8 March.^[239][240]

 • InLebanon, hundreds of Lebanese rallied in the capitalofBeirut on 27 February against the country's political system known as Confessionalism in a march called "The Laique pride" calling for reform. A peaceful sit-in in Saida also took place.^[241] On 13 March, tens of thousands of supporters of the March 14 coalition called for the disarmament of HezbollahinBeirut and to reject the supremacy of Hezbollah’s weapons over political life and to show support for the U.N.-backed Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) in the face of a fierce campaign by the Party of God and its March 8 allies to try to abolish the tribunal altogether.^[242]

 • InMauritania Yacoub Ould Dahoud, a protester, burned himself near the Presidential Palace on 17 January, in opposition to the policies of Mauritanian president Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz.^[243][244] The following week, hundreds of people took to the streets of the capital Nouakchott. The mayor of the city of Awjeft, Mohamed El Moctar Ould Ehmeyen Amar, resigned from the ruling party to politically support what he called ’the just cause of youngsters'.^[245] In addition to the capital Noukchott, cities such as Atar, Zouerate and Aleg also organised sporadic protests.^[246]

 • InSaudi Arabia hundreds of people protested over poor infrastructure in Jeddah following flooding^[247][248] and an online campaign for major political and economic changes started. On 5 February forty women demonstrated for the release of prisoners held without trial.^[249] Protests of a few hundred people took place several times in late February, as well as in early March in the north-east of the country, mainly Qatif,^[250] but also Hofuf and al-Awamiyah, as well as in the capital Riyadh.^[251][252] Security in the north-east was tightened on 5 March,^[253] and a "significant" police presence in Riyadh^[254] and Jeddah^[255] prevented protests from occuring on 11 March, while a day earlier, three protesters were injured by police gunfire in Qatif.^[250] Despite this, protests calling for the release of prisoners took place outside the Ministry of the Interior in Riyadh on 12 March.^[256][257] Following the crackdown on the 2011 Bahraini protests, frequent protests of a few hundred to a few thousand^[70][71] people occurred in and around Qatif from 15^[69] to 25^[258][259] March, calling for the release of prisoners and for the Peninsula Shield Force to be withdrawn from Bahrain.^[260][261] On 22–23 March, men-only municipal elections to elect half the members of local councils were announced for 22 September 2011.^[74][75]

 • InSudan, protests took place on 30 January and 1 February, when hundreds have called for Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir to step down. Subsequently, on 21 February, President Omar al-Bashir announced that he would not seek to run in the next presidential election in 2015.^[262]

 • in the United Arab Emirates a group of intellectuals petitioned their ruler for comprehensive reform of the Federal National Council or parliament, including demands for free elections by all citizens in the method of universal suffrage. About 160 people signed the petition, many of them academics and former members of the FNC.^[263]

 • In the Palestinian Territories, Haaretz suggested that an announcement by the Palestinian Authority on 1 February to hold municipal elections in July is in reaction to the anti-government protests in Egypt. On 14 February, the Palestinian Authority's Prime Minister Salam Fayyad and his Cabinet submitted its resignations to President Abbas^[264] amid pan-Arab calls for reform. Abbas tasked him with forming a new government after consultations with other factions, institutions and civil society groups.^[265] The reshuffle was long demanded by Fayyad and some in Abbas's Fatah faction.^[265]

 • InWestern Sahara, a series of minor protests where held by young Sahrawis to protest against labour discrimination, lack of jobs, looting of resources and human rights abuses.^[117] Although protests through February and March were part of an existing series of Sahrawi protests originating in October 2010, protesters cited inspiration from the events in other parts of the region. A few academics, such as Noam Chomsky, viewed the October protests as the starting point from which "the current wave of protests actually began".^[266]

International impact

On 12 February, British Foreign Secretary William Hague called for affected governments to refrain from the use of force against protesters and for greater democratic reforms in those countries.^{[267][268][269]} On 21 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron, became the first world leader to visit Egypt since Mubarak was ousted as the president 10 days previously. A news blackout was lifted as the prime minister landed in Cairo for a brief five-hour stopover hastily added at the start of a planned tour of the Middle East.^[131]

World economy

As many of the world's major oil producing countries are in the Middle East, the unrest has sent oil prices higher. The International Monetary Fund accordingly revised its forecast for 2011 oil prices to reflect a higher price, and also reported that food prices could rise.^[270] Additionally, concerns about Egypt's Suez Canal have raised shipping and oil prices.^[271]

Media Coverage

Al Jazeera won praise for its coverage of the protests, even though it angered governments.^[272] Of the coverage by Al Jazeera, Hillary Clinton said, "Al Jazeera has been the leader in that are literally changing people's minds and attitudes. And like it or hate it, it is really effective". She also stated "in fact viewership of Al Jazeera is going up in the United States because it's real news. You may not agree with it, but you feel like you're getting real news around the clock instead of a million commercials..."^[273]

The usage of social media has been extensive.^[274][275] As one Egyptian activist succinctly tweeted during the protests there, "We use Facebook to schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world."^[13] Internet censorship has also been extensive, and in some cases comprehensive to the extent of taking entire nation-states practically off-line.^[276] The Economist Intelligence Unit created what it called the "Shoe-Thrower's index" in an attempt to the quantify the likelihood of regime change in Arab World countries following the protests. The name derives from shoeing, throwing shoes, showing the sole of one's shoe or using shoes to insult—forms of protest primarily associated with the Arab world.^[277][278] The index indicated that Yemen has the highest odds for undergoing a revolution, and Qatar the lowest. The index weighs based on the number of years the current ruler has been in power, the population of young people, per capita GDP, democracy index, political corruption, and freedom of the press. The Unrest Index has been cited by BBC News in its analysis of the protests.^[279] Alen Mattich at the Wall Street Journal created the "Revolting Index" to rate the likelihood of revolts by nation based on "social unfairness; propensity to revolt; and a trigger". However, Mattich readily admits that "the methodology is crude. There's been no econometric work done".^[280] The index listed multiple African nations towards the top of the list, as well as some Asian nations.

See also

• Impact of 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests
• Arab Revolt: uprising by Arabs against the Ottoman Empire during World War I (1916–18)
• Civil resistance
• List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
• List of modern conflicts in North Africa
• List of ongoing military conflicts
• Revolutions of 1989: began with changes in Poland and eventually led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union
• Revolutions of 1848: Series of popular rebellions beginning with the French Revolution of 1848, then spreading throughout Europe
• People Power Revolution
• Freedom in the World
• List of freedom indices

References