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{{Short description|none}} 
{{POV|date=April 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2020}}
[[File:Sl3-122-2587ellenfromskylab.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[1973_Atlantic_hurricane_season#Hurricane_Ellen|Hurricane Ellen]] of 1973 was photographed from orbit by astronauts aboard the [[Skylab]] space station.]]
As the [[space race]] came to an end, a new rationale for investment in space exploration emerged, focused on the pragmatic use of space for improving life on Earth.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Fundamentals of Space Business and Economics|last=Gurtuna|first=Ozgur|publisher=Springer|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4614-6695-6|location=Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London|pages=31|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-6696-3|series=SpringerBriefs in Space Development}}</ref> The legacy of the space race is that nations continue to pursue space exploration to enhance their prestige.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steg |first=Leo |last2=Page |first2=Thornton |date=April 30, 1971 |title=Space Programs: Who Benefits? |journal=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |volume=172 |issue=3982 |pages=424-5}}</ref> As the justification for government-funded space programs shifted to "the public good", space agencies began to articulate and measure the wider socio-economic benefits that might derive from their activities, including both the direct and indirect (or less obvious) benefits of space exploration.<ref name=":4" /> However, such programs have also been criticized with several drawbacks cited.

== Direct and indirect benefits of space exploration ==
[[File:NASA Spinoff 2007 cover.jpg|thumb]]

Space agencies, governments, researchers and commentators have isolated a large number of direct and indirect benefits of space exploration programs including:
* New technologies that can be utilized in other industries and society (such as the development of [[communications satellite]]s)
* Improved knowledge of space and the origin of the universe
* Cultural benefits

In an attempt to quantify the benefits derived from space exploration, [[NASA]] calculated that 444,000 lives have been saved, 14,000 jobs have been created, $5 billion in revenue has been generated, and there has been $6.2 billion in cost reductions due to spin-off programs from NASA research.<ref name=":0">NASA. ''Spinoff''. 2012, https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2012/pdf/Spinoff2012.pdf. </ref> NASA states that among the many [[NASA spinoff technologies|spin-off technologies]] that have come out of the space exploration program, there have been notable advancements in the fields of health and medicine, transportation, public safety, consumer goods, energy and environment, information technology, and industrial productivity.<ref name=":0" /> Solar panels, water-purification systems, dietary formulas and supplements, material science innovation, and global search and rescue systems are some of the ways in which these technologies have diffused into everyday life.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/Benefits-Stemming-from-Space-Exploration-2013-TAGGED.pdf|title=Benefits Stemming from Space Exploration|last=ISECG|date=September 2013}}</ref>

== Satellite technology ==

The development of [[Satellite|artificial satellite technology]] was a direct result of space exploration. Since the first artificial satellite ([[Sputnik 1]],) was launched by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] on October 4, 1957, thousands of satellites have been put into orbit around the Earth by more than 40 countries.

These satellites are used for a variety of applications including observation (by both military and civilian agencies), communication, navigation, and weather monitoring. Space stations, space telescopes and spacecraft in orbit around the Earth are also regarded as satellites.

=== Communications satellites ===
[[Communications satellite]]s are used for a variety of purposes including television, telephone, radio, internet and military applications. According to statistics, there were 2,666 active artificial satellites orbiting the Earth in 2020. Of these, 1,327 belonged to the US and 363 to China.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/264472/number-of-satellites-in-orbit-by-operating-country/ | title=Number of satellites in orbit by major country as of March 31, 2020 |work=Statista.com | date=December 7, 2020}}</ref> Many of these satellites are in [[geostationary orbit]] {{convert|22236|mi|km}} above the [[equator]], so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky. Communications satellites can also be in [[Medium Earth orbit]] (known as MEO satellites) with an [[Orbital altitude]] ranging from {{convert|2000|to|36000|km|mi}} above Earth and [[low Earth orbit]] (known as LEO satellites) at {{convert|160|to|2,000|km|mi}} above Earth. MEO and LEO orbits are closer to the surface of the Earth and therefore a larger number of satellites are required in such a [[satellite constellation |constellation]] to provide continuous communications. Satellites are vital for providing communications to remote areas and ships.

=== Weather satellites ===
The United States, Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan all have [[weather satellite]]s in orbit that are used to monitor the weather, environment, and climate of the Earth. Polar-orbiting weather satellites cover the entire Earth asynchronously, or geostationary satellites cover the same spot on the equator.<ref>[[NESDIS]]. [http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/satellites.html Satellites.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704195947/http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/satellites.html |date=July 4, 2008 }} Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> In addition to monitoring weather patterns for forecasting, which is extremely important for certain activities and industries (such as farming and fishing), meteorological satellites monitor fires, pollution, auroras, sand, and dust storms, as well as snow cover and ice mapping. They have also been used to monitor ash clouds from volcanoes such as [[Mount St. Helens]] and [[Mount Etna]]<ref>[[NOAA]]. [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=15216 NOAA Satellites, Scientists Monitor Mt. St. Helens for Possible Eruption.] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120910225555/http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=15216 |date=September 10, 2012 }} Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> as well as major weather events such as [[El Niño]] and the Antarctic ozone hole.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://noaasis.noaa.gov/NOAASIS/ml/genlsatl.html|title=NOAA Satellite Information System (NOAASIS)|website=noaasis.noaa.gov|access-date=April 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825050114/http://noaasis.noaa.gov/NOAASIS/ml/genlsatl.html|archive-date=August 25, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Recently, weather monitoring satellites have also been used to assess the viability of solar panel sites by monitoring cloud cover and weather patterns.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pierro|first1=Marco|last2=De Felice| first2=Matteo| last3=Maggioni| first3=Enrico| last4=Moser|first4=David|last5=Perotto|first5=Alessandro|last6=Spada|first6=Francesco|last7=Cornaro|first7=Cristina|title=Data-driven upscaling methods for regional photovoltaic power estimation and forecast using satellite and numerical weather prediction data|journal=[[Solar Energy (journal)|Solar Energy]]|date=December 2017|volume=158| pages=1026–1038|doi=10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.068| bibcode=2017SoEn..158.1026P}}</ref> Nigeria and South Africa have successfully employed satellite-based disaster management and climate monitoring.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 1, 2012|title=Global partnerships: Expanding the frontiers of space exploration education|journal=Acta Astronautica|language=en|volume=80|pages=190–196|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.05.034|issn=0094-5765|last1=MacLeish|first1=Marlene Y.|last2=Akinyede|first2=Joseph O.|last3=Goswami|first3=Nandu|last4=Thomson|first4=William A.|bibcode=2012AcAau..80..190M}}</ref>

=== International Space Station ===
[[File:STS-135 final flyaround of ISS 1.jpg|thumb|The ISS]]
The [[International Space Station]] is a [[Modular design|modular]] [[space station]] (habitable [[satellite|artificial satellite]]) in [[low Earth orbit]] that was built by 18 countries including [[NASA]] (US), [[Roscosmos State Corporation|Roscosmos]] (Russia), [[JAXA]] (Japan), [[European Space Agency|ESA]] (Europe), and the [[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]] (Canada).<ref name="ISSRG">{{cite book |author=Gary Kitmacher |title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station |journal=Apogee Books Space Seriess |publisher=[[Apogee Books]] |location=Canada |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-894959-34-6 |issn=1496-6921 |pages=71–80}}</ref><ref name="PartStates">{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/partstates.html|title=Human Spaceflight and Exploration—European Participating States|accessdate=January 17, 2009|publisher=European Space Agency (ESA)|year=2009}}</ref> The station serves as a [[microgravity]] and [[space environment]] research laboratory in which [[Scientific research on the International Space Station|scientific research]] is conducted in [[astrobiology]], [[astronomy]], [[meteorology]], [[physics]], and other fields.<ref name="ISS overview">{{cite web|url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/ISS_OVR/index.htm|title=International Space Station Overview|publisher=ShuttlePressKit.com |date=June 3, 1999|accessdate=February 17, 2009}}</ref><ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123150641/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html|archive-date=January 23, 2008|title=Fields of Research|date=June 26, 2007|url-status=dead |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{cite web|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208091537/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html|archive-date=December 8, 2007|title=Getting on Board|date=June 26, 2007|url-status=dead|publisher=NASA}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> The ISS is also used for testing spacecraft systems and equipment required for future long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars.<ref name="ResProg">{{cite web|url=http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/|title=ISS Research Program|publisher=NASA|accessdate=February 27, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213140014/http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/|archive-date=February 13, 2009}}</ref>

=== Hubble Space Telescope ===
The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is a [[space telescope]] that was launched into [[low Earth orbit]] in 1990 by NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency. It was not the [[Orbiting Solar Observatory|first space telescope]], but it is one of the largest and most versatile.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_NASA_Great_Observatories_PS.html |title=NASA's Great Observatories |publisher=NASA |last=Canright |first=Shelley |accessdate=April 26, 2008}}</ref> Its orbit allows it to capture extremely high-resolution images with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes, enabling a deep view into space. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in [[astrophysics]], such as [[Hubble's law|determining the rate of expansion of the universe]].

== Knowledge of space ==
Since [[Sputnik 1]] entered orbit in 1957 to perform [[Ionosphere|Ionospheric]] experiments, the human understanding of Earth and space has increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Kuznetsov|author2=Sinelnikov|author3=Alpert|name-list-style=amp|date=June 2015|title=Yakov Alpert: Sputnik-1 and the first satellite ionospheric experiment|journal=Advances in Space Research|volume=55|issue=12|pages=2833–839|doi=10.1016/j.asr.2015.02.033|bibcode=2015AdSpR..55.2833K}}</ref> The [[List of missions to the Moon|missions to the Moon]] begin as early as 1958 and continued into the current age. A few successful lunar missions by the USSR include missions such as the [[Luna 1]] spacecraft that completed the first flyby of the Moon in 1959, the [[Luna 3]] lunar probe that took the first pictures of the far side of the Moon in 1959, the [[Luna 10]] orbiter that was the first orbiter of the Moon in 1966, the [[Zond 5]] circumlunar mission which flew the first Earthlings (two tortoises) to the Moon and safely returned them to Earth, and the [[Lunokhod 1]] lunar rover in 1970, which was the first rover to explore the surface of a world beyond Earth. United States firsts include [[Apollo 8]] in 1968, which carried the first three humans into lunar orbit, and the historic 1969 [[Apollo 11]] mission which first landed humans on the Moon.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=https://moon.nasa.gov/exploration/moon-missions/|title=Moon: NASA Science: Missions|work=Moon: NASA Science|access-date=April 17, 2018}}</ref> Missions to the Moon have collected samples of lunar materials and there are now multiple satellites such as [[ARTEMIS P1]] that currently orbit the Moon and collect data.<ref name=":7" />

== Precious metals ==
Proponents of space travel have noted the rich amount of precious metals that exist in space. For example, in 2021, NASA discovered a asteroid called "16 Psyche" which has more gold on it than the value of the global economy, about $10,000 quadrillion (the global economy is about $84.5 trillion).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carter |first=Jamie |title=NASA Is Set To Explore A Massive Metal Asteroid Called ‘Psyche’ That’s Worth Way More Than Our Global Economy |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2021/12/28/nasa-is-set-to-explore-a-massive-metal-asteroid-called-psyche-thats-worth-way-more-than-our-global-economy/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Carter |first=Jamie |title=‘Golden Asteroid’ Mission Is Back On Track, Says NASA |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2023/06/05/golden-asteroid-mission-is-back-on-track-says-nasa/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> There have also been asteroids that have been discovered that are made of 85% metal, such as iron and nickel, other precious metals that are relatively scarce on Earth, which has garnered optimism for space mining.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rare asteroids near Earth may contain precious metals worth $11.65 trillion |url=https://www.cnet.com/science/rare-asteroids-near-earth-may-become-targets-for-space-mining/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=CNET |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Carter |first=Jamie |title=The ‘Iron Giant’ Asteroid Worth More Than Our Global Economy May Have An Explosive Secret Say Scientists |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2022/02/24/the-iron-giant-asteroid-worth-more-than-our-global-economy-may-have-an-explosive-secret-say-scientists/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> Metallic asteroids also have other rare metals like platinum, iridium, palladium, osmium, ruthenium and rhodium at a "concentration several times higher than what is found on Earth."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-31 |title=Asteroid Mining Could Solve Rare Metal Shortage |url=https://www.manufacturing.net/technology/blog/21113380/asteroid-mining-could-solve-rare-metal-shortage |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=Manufacturing.net |language=en-us}}</ref>

Although regulations may pose as a barrier to the mining of precious metals in space with one advocate for space mining stating, "The rate of regulatory change must accelerate until it can match the rate of technological change!"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shammas |first=Victor L. |last2=Holen |first2=Tomas B. |date=2019-01-29 |title=One giant leap for capitalistkind: private enterprise in outer space |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-019-0218-9 |journal=Palgrave Communications |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1057/s41599-019-0218-9 |issn=2055-1045|hdl=10642/7833 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Biomedical research ==
[[File:Space body fluid.svg|thumb]]
Beginning in 1967, NASA successfully began its [[Biosatellite program]] that initially took frog eggs, amoeba, bacteria, plants and mice and studied the effects of zero gravity on these biological life forms.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/historyLetter.html|title=NASA – 50 Years of NASA History|website=www.nasa.gov|language=en|access-date=April 10, 2018}}</ref> Studies of human life in space have augmented the understanding of the effects of adjusting to a space environment, such as alterations in body fluids, negative influences on the immune system and effects of space on sleep patterns.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Fundamentals of Space Biology: Research on Cells, Animals, and Plants in Space|last=Clément|first=Gilles|publisher=NY: Springer New York|year=2006|location=New York}}</ref> Current space research pursuits are divided into the subjects of Space Biology, which studies the effects of space on smaller organisms such as cells, Space Physiology, which is the study of the effects of space on the human body and Space Medicine, which examines the possible dangers of space on the human body.<ref name=":2" /> The Canadian science experiments in the cardiovascular system examines how astronauts’ blood vessels change before, during and after missions. The study in space helps understand heart failures and how our arteries age on earth. Space engineers helped design heart pumps now used to keep people in need of heart transplant alive until a donor heart becomes available.<ref>{{cite web |title=Improving health care |url=https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/everyday-benefits-of-space-exploration/improving-health-care.asp |website=Canadian Space Agency |access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> Discoveries concerning the human body and space, particularly the effects on the development of bones, may provide further understanding of biomineralization and the process of gene transcription.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clément|first=Gilles|date=2005|title=Fundamentals of Space Medicine|journal=The Space Technology Library|volume=17|pages=3}}</ref>

== Culture and inspiration ==
[[File:PIA22946-Jupiter-RedSpot-JunoSpacecraft-20190212.jpg|thumb|300px|Published by NASA in March 2019, the "Jupiter Marble" by the [[Juno (spacecraft)|''Juno'' probe]]]]
[[Human Culture]] exists as a social environment made up by traditions, norms, rules written or unwritten, and social practices. Astronaut [[Jeffrey A. Hoffman]] stated that space exploration "expands the realm of human experience and of human consciousness".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pitts |first=Bradley McGilvary |date=January 2003 |title=Humane Exploration of Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1162/thld_a_00337 |journal=Thresholds |volume=27 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.1162/thld_a_00337 |issn=1091-711X}}</ref> Cultures can be specific to groups of any size such as a family or group of friends but also as large as a state or nation. The range and diversity of human culture is markedly large. International collaboration in the space age brought together different cultures and, as a result, the exchange and advancement of human culture. In over fifty years of space travel, the diversity of those working in space and in the field as a whole has dramatically increased from the beginnings of space exploration. This progression in diversity brought more cultures into close quarters and resulted in the enrichment of human culture globally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harris|first=Philip R.|date=January 1, 1986|title=The influence of culture on space developments|journal=Behavioral Science|volume=31|issue=1|pages=12–28|doi=10.1002/bs.3830310103|issn=1099-1743|hdl=2060/19930007674|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

The innovation and exploration of the space age has served as an inspiration to humankind. Breaking through into space travel, humans leaving Earth and defeating gravity, taking steps on the Moon, and various other achievements were pivotal moments in human cultural development. In particular, the scientific and technological advancements stand as an inspiration to the scientific community of students, teachers, and researchers worldwide. Moreover, space exploration has also inspired innovative training programs aimed at preschoolers, such as the Future Astronauts Program. It is evident that by drawing in the wonder of space together with the knowledge and skills developed through space exploration into classrooms, children can be strongly motivated and empowered from a young age.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://funacademy.fi/train-children-like-future-astronaut/|title=Every Child Should Train Like A Future Astronaut. This Is Why.|last=Sanders|first=Claire|date=July 10, 2018|website=Fun Academy|accessdate=July 30, 2018|archive-date=July 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730170811/https://funacademy.fi/train-children-like-future-astronaut/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Criticisms and drawbacks==
There are three main types of criticism levied against space exploration: the cost, ideological criticism, and social criticism.

The calculations of the benefits of space exploration have frequently been criticized due to a conflict of interests argument (the agencies responsible are the ones who calculate the benefits) and the complexity of quantifying the benefits. As Matthew Williams stated: "How do you put a dollar value on scientific knowledge, inspiration, or the expansion of our frontiers?"<ref>{{cite web| url=https://interestingengineering.com/is-it-worth-it-the-costs-and-benefits-of-space-exploration | title=Is It Worth It? The Costs and Benefits of Space Exploration | work=Interesting Engineering | author=Matthew S. Williams}}</ref>

While some commentators have argued that space exploration is a lifeboat strategy to avoid annihilation of the human race, others have countered that is misses the point. Amitai Etzioni – Professor at The George Washington University and an adviser to the US's Carter administration – countered in ''Humanity Would Be Better off Saving Earth, Rather Than Colonizing Mars'' that: "It is better to hold off disasters at home than to assume all is lost". Etzioni also pointed out the vast cost of colonization of extraterrestrial planets by citing that [[Elon Musk]], an advocate of space exploration and colonization, had calculated the cost of sending the first 12 astronauts to Mars at £10 billion per person.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/humanity-would-be-better-saving-earth-rather-colonizing-mars-29712 | title=Humanity Would Be Better Saving Earth Rather Than Colonizing Mars | work=National Interest | author=Amitai Etzioni}}</ref> The [[Mars Climate Orbiter]] is a good example of this argument, burning up—before returning any scientific data—at a cost of $328 million.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msp98/orbiter/fact.html|access-date=August 3, 2020|title=Mars Climate Orbiter Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA-JPL}}</ref>

Social critics say that the cost of space exploration cannot be justified when hunger and poverty are rampant. "As they see it, space exploration takes money, resources, and talent away from helping people in need and from improving the quality of life for everybody."<ref>{{cite work|title=Space colonies and the philosophy of space exploration, AIP Conference Proceedings, Volume 148, pp. 2–12|author=Gonzalo Munevar |date=1986}}</ref> In 1967, [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] said: "Without denying the value of scientific endeavor, there is a striking absurdity in committing billions to reach the moon where no people live, while only a fraction of that amount is appropriated to service the densely populated slums."

Some critics have pointed out the hazards of [[space debris]] which affect satellites, spacecraft and the surface of the Earth. For example, in March 2009 debris believed to be a {{convert|10|cm|abbr=on}} piece of the Kosmos 1275 satellite nearly hit the ISS.<ref>Haines, Lester. [https://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/03/17/iss_update/ "ISS spared space junk avoidance manoeuvre"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810142014/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/03/17/iss_update/ |date=August 10, 2017 }}, ''The Register'', March 17, 2009.</ref> Although it is relatively rare for people on the ground to be hit by space debris, it does happen. In 1969 five sailors on a Japanese ship were injured by space debris.<ref>U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, [https://fas.org/ota/reports/9033.pdf "Orbiting Debris: A Space Environmental Problem"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000243/http://www.fas.org/ota/reports/9033.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }}, Background Paper, OTA-BP-ISC-72, U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1990, p. 3</ref> In 1997 an Oklahoma woman, Lottie Williams, was injured when she was hit in the shoulder by a {{convert|10|x|13|cm|abbr=on}} piece of blackened, woven metallic material confirmed as part of the propellant tank of a [[Delta II]] rocket which launched a U.S. Air Force satellite the year before.<ref>[http://www.todayinsci.com/1/1_22.htm "Today in Science History"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060113020939/http://www.todayinsci.com/1/1_22.htm |date=January 13, 2006 }} ''todayinsci.com''. Retrieved March 8, 2006.</ref><ref>Tony Long, [https://www.wired.com/2009/01/jan-22-1997-heads-up-lottie-its-space-junk/ "Jan. 22, 1997: Heads Up, Lottie! It's Space Junk!"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102224533/https://www.wired.com/2009/01/jan-22-1997-heads-up-lottie-its-space-junk/ |date=January 2, 2018 }}, ''wired'', January 22, 2009. Retrieved March 27, 2016</ref> Environmentalists have pointed to the pollution caused by space exploration and at distracting Americans from a mounting pollution problem.<ref name="Not Everyone Wanted a Man on the Moon">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/opinion/apollo-11-nasa-woodstock.html|title=Not Everyone Wanted a Man on the Moon|author=Neil M. Maher|website=[[The New York Times]] | date=July 16, 2019}}</ref>

Feminists criticized the US space exploration programs, and even filed lawsuits, for sexist hiring practices and all-male astronaut corps.<ref name="Not Everyone Wanted a Man on the Moon" />

It is unclear how much the American public agrees with the importance of space exploration.{{cn|date=March 2021}} Gallup polls in the 1960s showed that less than 50% of Americans considered the endeavour worth the cost.{{cn|date=March 2021}} An NBC News and Associated Press Poll in 1979 found that only 41% of respondents considered the benefits worth the costs.{{cn|date=March 2021}}

==See also==
* [[NASA spinoff technologies]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Space exploration]]
U Sankar(2007), Economics of India's Space Programme, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.

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Latin: A a Á á À à Â â Ä ä Ǎ ǎ Ă ă Ā ā Ã ã Å å Ą ą Æ æ Ǣ ǣ B b C c Ć ć Ċ ċ Ĉ ĉ Č č Ç ç D d Ď ď Đ đ Ḍ ḍ Ð ð E e É é È è Ė ė Ê ê Ë ë Ě ě Ĕ ĕ Ē ē Ẽ ẽ Ę ę Ẹ ẹ Ɛ ɛ Ǝ ǝ Ə ə F f G g Ġ ġ Ĝ ĝ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ H h Ĥ ĥ Ħ ħ Ḥ ḥ I i İ ı Í í Ì ì Î î Ï ï Ǐ ǐ Ĭ ĭ Ī ī Ĩ ĩ Į į Ị ị J j Ĵ ĵ K k Ķ ķ L l Ĺ ĺ Ŀ ŀ Ľ ľ Ļ ļ Ł ł Ḷ ḷ Ḹ ḹ M m Ṃ ṃ N n Ń ń Ň ň Ñ ñ Ņ ņ Ṇ ṇ Ŋ ŋ O o Ó ó Ò ò Ô ô Ö ö Ǒ ǒ Ŏ ŏ Ō ō Õ õ Ǫ ǫ Ọ ọ Ő ő Ø ø Œ œ Ɔ ɔ P p Q q R r Ŕ ŕ Ř ř Ŗ ŗ Ṛ ṛ Ṝ ṝ S s Ś ś Ŝ ŝ Š š Ş ş Ș ș Ṣ ṣ ß T t Ť ť Ţ ţ Ț ț Ṭ ṭ Þ þ U u Ú ú Ù ù Û û Ü ü Ǔ ǔ Ŭ ŭ Ū ū Ũ ũ Ů ů Ų ų Ụ ụ Ű ű Ǘ ǘ Ǜ ǜ Ǚ ǚ Ǖ ǖ V v W w Ŵ ŵ X x Y y Ý ý Ŷ ŷ Ÿ ÿ Ỹ ỹ Ȳ ȳ Z z Ź ź Ż ż Ž ž ß Ð ð Þ þ Ŋ ŋ Ə ə
Greek: Ά ά Έ έ Ή ή Ί ί Ό ό Ύ ύ Ώ ώ Α α Β β Γ γ Δ δ Ε ε Ζ ζ Η η Θ θ Ι ι Κ κ Λ λ Μ μ Ν ν Ξ ξ Ο ο Π π Ρ ρ Σ σ ς Τ τ Υ υ Φ φ Χ χ Ψ ψ Ω ω {{Polytonic|}}
Cyrillic: А а Б б В в Г г Ґ ґ Ѓ ѓ Д д Ђ ђ Е е Ё ё Є є Ж ж З з Ѕ ѕ И и І і Ї ї Й й Ј ј К к Ќ ќ Л л Љ љ М м Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Т т Ћ ћ У у Ў ў Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Џ џ Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я ́
IPA: t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ ɟ ɡ ɢ ʡ ʔ ɸ β θ ð ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ ʜ ʢ ɦ ɱ ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ ʋ ɹ ɻ ɰ ʙ ⱱ ʀ ɾ ɽ ɫ ɬ ɮ ɺ ɭ ʎ ʟ ɥ ʍ ɧ ʼ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ ɨ ʉ ɯ ɪ ʏ ʊ ø ɘ ɵ ɤ ə ɚ ɛ œ ɜ ɝ ɞ ʌ ɔ æ ɐ ɶ ɑ ɒ ʰ ʱ ʷ ʲ ˠ ˤ ⁿ ˡ ˈ ˌ ː ˑ ̪ {{IPA|}}

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