Function section- added links and subtitle Mesocortiolimbic projection
|
Function section. Added new citations with connecting information.
|
||
Line 102: | Line 102: | ||
'''Mesocorticolimbic Projection |
'''<big>Mesocorticolimbic Projection: [[Mesocortical pathway|Mesocortical Pathway]] and [[Mesolimbic pathway|Mesolimbic Pathway]]</big>''' |
||
⚫ | The '''mesocorticolimbic projection''' ( mesocorticolimbic system, mesocorticolimbic pathwa'''y)''' refers to both the '''mesocortical''' and '''mesolimbic''' pathways.<ref name="projection" /><ref name="MEDRS-quality human review">{{cite journal|vauthors=Doyon WM, Thomas AM, Ostroumov A, Dong Y, Dani JA|date=October 2013|title=Potential substrates for nicotine and alcohol interactions: a focus on the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system|journal=Biochem. Pharmacol.|volume=86|issue=8|pages=1181–93|doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2013.07.007|pmc=3800178|pmid=23876345}}</ref> Both pathways originate at the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Through separate connections to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical) and ventral striatum (mesolimbic), the mesocorticolimbic projection has a significant roleinlearning, motivation, reward, memory and movement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yamaguchi|first=T.|last2=Wang|first2=H.-L.|last3=Li|first3=X.|last4=Ng|first4=T. H.|last5=Morales|first5=M.|date=2011-06-08|title=Mesocorticolimbic Glutamatergic Pathway|url=https://www.jneurosci.org/lookup/doi/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1598-11.2011|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|language=en|volume=31|issue=23|pages=8476–8490|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1598-11.2011|issn=0270-6474|pmc=PMC6623324|pmid=21653852}}</ref> Dopamine receptor subtypes, D1 and D2 have been shown to have complementary functions in the mesocorticolimbic projection, facilitating learning in response to both positive and negative feedback.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Verharen|first=Jeroen P. H.|last2=Adan|first2=Roger A. H.|last3=Vanderschuren|first3=Louk J. M. J.|date=2019-12|title=Differential contributions of striatal dopamine D1 and D2 receptors to component processes of value-based decision making|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-019-0454-0|journal=Neuropsychopharmacology|language=en|volume=44|issue=13|pages=2195–2204|doi=10.1038/s41386-019-0454-0|issn=1740-634X|pmc=PMC6897916|pmid=31254972}}</ref> Both pathways of the mesocorticollimbic projection are associated with [[ADHD]], [[schizophrenia]] and [[addiction]].<ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=9780071481274|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ...<br /> These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is often called “top-down” control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions, including association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ...<br />In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... <!--Inhibitory control brain structures-->Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref><ref name="ADHD 2008 paper">{{cite journal|last1=Engert|first1=Veronika|last2=Pruessner|first2=Jens C|date=9 January 2017|title=Dopaminergic and Noradrenergic Contributions to Functionality in ADHD: The Role of Methylphenidate|journal=Current Neuropharmacology|volume=6|issue=4|pages=322–328|doi=10.2174/157015908787386069|issn=1570-159X|pmc=2701285|pmid=19587853}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Dreyer|first=Jean-Luc|date=2010|title=New insights into the roles of microRNAs in drug addiction and neuroplasticity|url=http://genomemedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gm213|journal=Genome Medicine|language=en|volume=2|issue=12|pages=92|doi=10.1186/gm213|issn=1756-994X|pmc=PMC3025434|pmid=21205279}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robison|first=Alfred J.|last2=Nestler|first2=Eric J.|date=2011-11|title=Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3111|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|language=en|volume=12|issue=11|pages=623–637|doi=10.1038/nrn3111|issn=1471-0048|pmc=PMC3272277|pmid=21989194}}</ref> |
||
The mesocorticolimbic projection ( mesocorticolimbic system, mesocorticolimbic pathwa'''y)''' refers to both the '''mesocortical''' and '''mesolimbic''' pathways.<ref name="projection" /><ref name="MEDRS-quality human review">{{cite journal|vauthors=Doyon WM, Thomas AM, Ostroumov A, Dong Y, Dani JA|date=October 2013|title=Potential substrates for nicotine and alcohol interactions: a focus on the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system|journal=Biochem. Pharmacol.|volume=86|issue=8|pages=1181–93|doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2013.07.007|pmc=3800178|pmid=23876345}}</ref> |
|||
The [[mesocortical pathway|'''mesocortical pathway''']] projects from the ventral tegmental area to the prefrontal cortex ([[Ventral tegmental area|VTA]] → [[Prefrontal cortex]]). This pathway is involved in cognition and the regulation of [[executive function]]s (e.g., attention, working memory, [[inhibitory control]], planning, etc.) Dysregulation of the neurons in this pathway has been connected to ADHD.<ref name="ADHD 2008 paper" /> |
|||
⚫ |
The |
||
⚫ | Referred to as the reward pathway, [[mesolimbic pathway|'''mesolimbic pathway''']] projects from the ventral tegmental areatothe ventral striatum ( VTA → [[Ventral striatum]] ([[nucleus accumbens]] and [[olfactory tubercle]]).<ref name=":0" /> When a rewardisanticipated, the firing rate of dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic pathway increases.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Salamone|first=John D.|last2=Correa|first2=Mercè|date=2012-11|title=The Mysterious Motivational Functions of Mesolimbic Dopamine|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896627312009415|journal=Neuron|language=en|volume=76|issue=3|pages=470–485|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021|pmc=PMC4450094|pmid=23141060}}</ref> The mesolimbic pathway is involved with [[incentive salience]], [[motivation]], reinforcement learning, fear and other cognitive processes.<ref name="NHM pathways" /><ref name="ADHD 2008 paper" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pezze|first1=Marie A.|last2=Feldon|first2=Joram|date=1 December 2004|title=Mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways in fear conditioning|journal=Progress in Neurobiology|volume=74|issue=5|pages=301–320|doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.09.004|issn=0301-0082|pmid=15582224}}</ref> In animal studies, depletionofdopamine in this pathway, or lesions at its site of origin, decrease the extenttowhich an animal is willing to go to obtainareward (e.g., the number of lever presses for nicotine or time searching for food).<ref name=":1" /> Research is ongoing to determine the role of the mesolimbic pathwayinthe perception of pleasure.<ref name="Pleasure system">{{cite journal|vauthors=Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML|date=May 2015|title=Pleasure systems in the brain|journal=Neuron|volume=86|issue=3|pages=646–664|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018|pmc=4425246|pmid=25950633|quote=To summarize: the emerging realization that many diverse pleasures share overlapping brain substrates; better neuroimaging maps for encoding human pleasure in orbitofrontal cortex; identification of hotspots and separable brain mechanisms for generating ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ for the same reward; identification of larger keyboard patterns of generators for desire and dread within NAc, with multiple modes of function; and the realization that dopamine and most ‘pleasure electrode’ candidates for brain hedonic generators probably did not cause much pleasure after all.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berridge|first1=Kent C|last2=Kringelbach|first2=Morten L|date=1 June 2013|title=Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|volume=23|issue=3|pages=294–303|doi=10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.017|pmc=3644539|pmid=23375169}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nestler|first=Eric J.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1191071328|title=Molecular neuropharmacology a foundation for clinical neuroscience|date=2020|others=Paul J. Kenny, Scott J. Russo, Anne, MD Schaefer|isbn=978-1-260-45691-2|edition=Fourth edition|location=New York|oclc=1191071328}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berridge|first=Kent C.|last2=Kringelbach|first2=Morten L.|date=2015-05|title=Pleasure Systems in the Brain|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0896627315001336|journal=Neuron|language=en|volume=86|issue=3|pages=646–664|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018|pmc=PMC4425246|pmid=25950633}}</ref> |
||
The [[mesolimbic pathway]] regulates [[incentive salience]], motivation, reinforcement learning, and fear, among other cognitive processes.<ref name="NHM pathways" /><ref name="ADHD 2008 paper" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pezze|first1=Marie A.|last2=Feldon|first2=Joram|date=1 December 2004|title=Mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways in fear conditioning|journal=Progress in Neurobiology|volume=74|issue=5|pages=301–320|doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.09.004|issn=0301-0082|pmid=15582224}}</ref> |
|||
⚫ |
|
||
Two hypothesized states of prefrontal cortex activity driven by D1 and D2 pathway activity have been proposed; one D1 driven state in which there is a barrier allowing for high level of focus, and one D2 driven allowing for task switching with a weak barrier allowing more information in.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Durstewitz|first1=Daniel|last2=Seamans|first2=Jeremy K.|date=1 November 2008|title=The dual-state theory of prefrontal cortex dopamine function with relevance to catechol-o-methyltransferase genotypes and schizophrenia|journal=Biological Psychiatry|volume=64|issue=9|pages=739–749|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.015|issn=1873-2402|pmid=18620336}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seamans|first1=Jeremy K.|last2=Yang|first2=Charles R.|date=1 September 2004|title=The principal features and mechanisms of dopamine modulation in the prefrontal cortex|journal=Progress in Neurobiology|volume=74|issue=1|pages=1–58|doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.05.006|pmid=15381316}}</ref> |
|||
Mesocorticolimbic pathways, as mentioned above in relation to the basal ganglia, are thought to mediate learning. Various models have been proposed, however the dominant one is that of [[temporal difference learning]], in which a prediction is made before a reward and afterwards adjustment is made based on a learning factor and reward yield versus expectation leading to a [[learning curve]].<ref name="pmid26109341" /> |
|||
The dopaminergic pathways that project from the [[substantia nigra pars compacta]] (SNc) and [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA) into the [[striatum]] (i.e., the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic pathways, respectively) form one component of a sequence of pathways known as the [[cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop]].<ref name="Reward system components and structure-specific functions">{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor SB, Lewis CR, Olive MF | title = The neurocircuitry of illicit psychostimulant addiction: acute and chronic effects in humans | journal = Subst Abuse Rehabil | volume = 4 | pages = 29–43 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24648786 | pmc = 3931688 | doi = 10.2147/SAR.S39684 | quote = <!--Regions of the basal ganglia, which include the dorsal and ventral striatum, internal and external segments of the globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and dopaminergic cell bodies in the substantia nigra, are highly implicated not only in fine motor control but also in PFC function.43 Of these regions, the NAc (described above) and the DS (described below) are most frequently examined with respect to addiction. Thus, only a brief description of the modulatory role of the basal ganglia in addiction-relevant circuits will be mentioned here. The overall output of the basal ganglia is predominantly via the thalamus, which then projects back to the PFC to form cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loops. Three CSTC loops are proposed to modulate executive function, action selection, and behavioral inhibition. In the dorsolateral prefrontal circuit, the basal ganglia primarily modulate the identification and selection of goals, including rewards.44 The OFC circuit modulates decision-making and impulsivity, and the anterior cingulate circuit modulates the assessment of consequences.44 These circuits are modulated by dopaminergic inputs from the VTA to ultimately guide behaviors relevant to addiction, including the persistence and narrowing of the behavioral repertoire toward drug seeking, and continued drug use despite negative consequences.43–45-->}}</ref><ref name="Striatal efferents, afferents, and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs">{{cite journal | authors = Yager LM, Garcia AF, Wunsch AM, Ferguson SM | title = The ins and outs of the striatum: Role in drug addiction | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 301 | pages = 529–541 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26116518 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.033 | quote = <!--[The striatum] receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra (SNr) and glutamatergic inputs from several areas, including the cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus (Swanson, 1982; Phillipson and Griffiths, 1985; Finch, 1996; Groenewegen et al., 1999; Britt et al., 2012). These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck, allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity ... It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors, though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell (Bertran- Gonzalez et al., 2008). ... Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally. The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli; Classically, these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output. Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop; thereby acting as a ‘go’ signal to initiate behavior. Activation of the iMSNs, however, causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a ‘brake’ to inhibit behavior ... there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction (Lobo and Nestler, 2011; Grueter et al., 2013). For example, optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs ... enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP (Durieux et al., 2009; Lobo et al., 2010). These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward. ... Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug-taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use.--> | pmc=4523218}}</ref> The nigrostriatal component of the loop consists of the SNc, giving rise to both inhibitory and excitatory pathways that run from the striatum into the [[globus pallidus]], before carrying on to the thalamus, or into the [[subthalamic nucleus]] before heading into the [[thalamus]]. The dopaminergic neurons in this circuit increase the magnitude of phasic firing in response to positive reward error, that is when the reward exceeds the expected reward. These neurons do not decrease phasic firing during a negative reward prediction (less reward than expected), leading to hypothesis that serotonergic, rather than dopaminergic neurons encode reward loss (source?). Dopamine phasic activity also increases during cues that signal negative events, however dopaminergic neuron stimulation still induces place preference, indicating its main role in evaluating a positive stimulus. From these findings, two hypotheses have developed, as to the role of the basal ganglia and nigrostiatal dopamine circuits in action selection. The first model suggests a "critic" which encodes value, and an actor which encodes responses to stimuli based on perceived value. However, the second model proposes that the actions do not originate in the basal ganglia, and instead originate in the cortex and are selected by the basal ganglia. This model proposes that the direct pathway controls appropriate behavior and the indirect suppresses actions not suitable for the situation. This model proposes that tonic dopaminergic firing increases the activity of the direct pathway, causing a bias towards executing actions faster.<ref name="pmid21270784">{{cite journal | vauthors = Maia TV, Frank MJ | title = From reinforcement learning models to psychiatric and neurological disorders | journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–62 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21270784 | pmc = 4408000 | doi = 10.1038/nn.2723 }}</ref> |
The dopaminergic pathways that project from the [[substantia nigra pars compacta]] (SNc) and [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA) into the [[striatum]] (i.e., the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic pathways, respectively) form one component of a sequence of pathways known as the [[cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop]].<ref name="Reward system components and structure-specific functions">{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor SB, Lewis CR, Olive MF | title = The neurocircuitry of illicit psychostimulant addiction: acute and chronic effects in humans | journal = Subst Abuse Rehabil | volume = 4 | pages = 29–43 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24648786 | pmc = 3931688 | doi = 10.2147/SAR.S39684 | quote = <!--Regions of the basal ganglia, which include the dorsal and ventral striatum, internal and external segments of the globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and dopaminergic cell bodies in the substantia nigra, are highly implicated not only in fine motor control but also in PFC function.43 Of these regions, the NAc (described above) and the DS (described below) are most frequently examined with respect to addiction. Thus, only a brief description of the modulatory role of the basal ganglia in addiction-relevant circuits will be mentioned here. The overall output of the basal ganglia is predominantly via the thalamus, which then projects back to the PFC to form cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loops. Three CSTC loops are proposed to modulate executive function, action selection, and behavioral inhibition. In the dorsolateral prefrontal circuit, the basal ganglia primarily modulate the identification and selection of goals, including rewards.44 The OFC circuit modulates decision-making and impulsivity, and the anterior cingulate circuit modulates the assessment of consequences.44 These circuits are modulated by dopaminergic inputs from the VTA to ultimately guide behaviors relevant to addiction, including the persistence and narrowing of the behavioral repertoire toward drug seeking, and continued drug use despite negative consequences.43–45-->}}</ref><ref name="Striatal efferents, afferents, and colocalized receptors in dMSNs and iMSNs">{{cite journal | authors = Yager LM, Garcia AF, Wunsch AM, Ferguson SM | title = The ins and outs of the striatum: Role in drug addiction | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 301 | pages = 529–541 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26116518 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.033 | quote = <!--[The striatum] receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra (SNr) and glutamatergic inputs from several areas, including the cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus (Swanson, 1982; Phillipson and Griffiths, 1985; Finch, 1996; Groenewegen et al., 1999; Britt et al., 2012). These glutamatergic inputs make contact on the heads of dendritic spines of the striatal GABAergic medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs) whereas dopaminergic inputs synapse onto the spine neck, allowing for an important and complex interaction between these two inputs in modulation of MSN activity ... It should also be noted that there is a small population of neurons in the NAc that coexpress both D1 and D2 receptors, though this is largely restricted to the NAc shell (Bertran- Gonzalez et al., 2008). ... Neurons in the NAc core and NAc shell subdivisions also differ functionally. The NAc core is involved in the processing of conditioned stimuli whereas the NAc shell is more important in the processing of unconditioned stimuli; Classically, these two striatal MSN populations are thought to have opposing effects on basal ganglia output. Activation of the dMSNs causes a net excitation of the thalamus resulting in a positive cortical feedback loop; thereby acting as a ‘go’ signal to initiate behavior. Activation of the iMSNs, however, causes a net inhibition of thalamic activity resulting in a negative cortical feedback loop and therefore serves as a ‘brake’ to inhibit behavior ... there is also mounting evidence that iMSNs play a role in motivation and addiction (Lobo and Nestler, 2011; Grueter et al., 2013). For example, optogenetic activation of NAc core and shell iMSNs suppressed the development of a cocaine CPP whereas selective ablation of NAc core and shell iMSNs ... enhanced the development and the persistence of an amphetamine CPP (Durieux et al., 2009; Lobo et al., 2010). These findings suggest that iMSNs can bidirectionally modulate drug reward. ... Together these data suggest that iMSNs normally act to restrain drug-taking behavior and recruitment of these neurons may in fact be protective against the development of compulsive drug use.--> | pmc=4523218}}</ref> The nigrostriatal component of the loop consists of the SNc, giving rise to both inhibitory and excitatory pathways that run from the striatum into the [[globus pallidus]], before carrying on to the thalamus, or into the [[subthalamic nucleus]] before heading into the [[thalamus]]. The dopaminergic neurons in this circuit increase the magnitude of phasic firing in response to positive reward error, that is when the reward exceeds the expected reward. These neurons do not decrease phasic firing during a negative reward prediction (less reward than expected), leading to hypothesis that serotonergic, rather than dopaminergic neurons encode reward loss (source?). Dopamine phasic activity also increases during cues that signal negative events, however dopaminergic neuron stimulation still induces place preference, indicating its main role in evaluating a positive stimulus. From these findings, two hypotheses have developed, as to the role of the basal ganglia and nigrostiatal dopamine circuits in action selection. The first model suggests a "critic" which encodes value, and an actor which encodes responses to stimuli based on perceived value. However, the second model proposes that the actions do not originate in the basal ganglia, and instead originate in the cortex and are selected by the basal ganglia. This model proposes that the direct pathway controls appropriate behavior and the indirect suppresses actions not suitable for the situation. This model proposes that tonic dopaminergic firing increases the activity of the direct pathway, causing a bias towards executing actions faster.<ref name="pmid21270784">{{cite journal | vauthors = Maia TV, Frank MJ | title = From reinforcement learning models to psychiatric and neurological disorders | journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–62 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21270784 | pmc = 4408000 | doi = 10.1038/nn.2723 }}</ref> |
Dopaminergic pathways, (dopamine pathways, dopaminergic projections) in the human brain are involved in both physiological and behavioral processes including movement, cognition, executive functions, reward, motivation, and neuroendocrine control.[1] Each pathway is a set of projection neurons, consisting of individual dopamine neurons.
There are four major dopaminergic pathways:
· The mesolimbic pathway,
· The mesocortical pathway,
· The nigrostriatal pathway and
· The tuberoinfundibular pathway.
Other dopaminergic pathways include the hypothalamospinal tract and the incertohypothalamic pathway.
Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance abuse disorder (addiction), and restless legs syndrome (RLS) can be attributed to dysfunction in specific dopaminergic pathways.
The dopamine neurons of the dopaminergic pathways synthesize and release the neurotransmitter dopamine.[2][3] Enzymes tyrosine hydroxylase and dopa decarboxylase, are required for dopamine synthesis.[4] These enzymes are both produced in the cell bodies of dopamine neurons. Dopamine is stored in the cytoplasm and vesicles in axon terminals. Dopamine release from vesicles is triggered by action potential propagation-induced membrane depolarization.[5] The axons of dopamine neurons extend the entire length of their designated pathway.
Six of the dopaminergic pathways are listed below.
Pathway name | Description | Associated processes | Associated disorders | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mesocorticolimbic projection |
pathway |
The mesolimbic pathway transmits dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which is located in the midbrain, to the ventral striatum, which includes both the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle.[6][7] The "meso" prefix in the word "mesolimbic" refers to the midbrain, or "middle brain", since "meso" means "middle" in Greek. |
|
|
pathway |
The mesocortical pathway transmits dopamine from the VTA to the prefrontal cortex. The "meso" prefix in "mesocortical" refers to the VTA, which is located in the midbrain, and "cortical" refers to the cortex. | |||
Nigrostriatal pathway | The nigrostriatal pathway transmits dopamine from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) to the caudate nucleus and putamen. The substantia nigra is located in the midbrain, while both the caudate nucleus and putamen is located in the dorsal striatum. |
|
||
Tuberoinfundibular pathway | The tuberoinfundibular pathway transmits dopamine from the arcuate nucleus (aka "infundibular nucleus") of the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland via dopamine release into the median eminence and subsequent circulation through the hypophyseal portal system. This pathway influences the secretion of certain hormones, including prolactin, from the pituitary gland. "Infundibular" in the word "tuberoinfundibular" refers to the cup or infundibulum, out of which the pituitary gland develops. |
|
||
Hypothalamospinal tract | This pathway influences locomotor networks in the brainstem and spinal cord. |
|
||
Incertohypothalamic pathway | This pathway from the zona incerta influences the hypothalamus and locomotor centers in the brainstem. |
|
Major pathways[6][7][8] (same as above)
Other pathways
Mesocorticolimbic Projection: Mesocortical Pathway and Mesolimbic Pathway
The mesocorticolimbic projection ( mesocorticolimbic system, mesocorticolimbic pathway) refers to both the mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways.[3][10] Both pathways originate at the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Through separate connections to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical) and ventral striatum (mesolimbic), the mesocorticolimbic projection has a significant role in learning, motivation, reward, memory and movement.[11] Dopamine receptor subtypes, D1 and D2 have been shown to have complementary functions in the mesocorticolimbic projection, facilitating learning in response to both positive and negative feedback.[12] Both pathways of the mesocorticollimbic projection are associated with ADHD, schizophrenia and addiction.[13][14][15][16]
The mesocortical pathway projects from the ventral tegmental area to the prefrontal cortex (VTA → Prefrontal cortex). This pathway is involved in cognition and the regulation of executive functions (e.g., attention, working memory, inhibitory control, planning, etc.) Dysregulation of the neurons in this pathway has been connected to ADHD.[14]
Referred to as the reward pathway, mesolimbic pathway projects from the ventral tegmental area to the ventral striatum ( VTA → Ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle).[15] When a reward is anticipated, the firing rate of dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic pathway increases.[17] The mesolimbic pathway is involved with incentive salience, motivation, reinforcement learning, fear and other cognitive processes.[7][14][18] In animal studies, depletion of dopamine in this pathway, or lesions at its site of origin, decrease the extent to which an animal is willing to go to obtain a reward (e.g., the number of lever presses for nicotine or time searching for food).[17] Research is ongoing to determine the role of the mesolimbic pathway in the perception of pleasure.[19][20][21][22]
Two hypothesized states of prefrontal cortex activity driven by D1 and D2 pathway activity have been proposed; one D1 driven state in which there is a barrier allowing for high level of focus, and one D2 driven allowing for task switching with a weak barrier allowing more information in.[23][24]
The dopaminergic pathways that project from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) into the striatum (i.e., the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic pathways, respectively) form one component of a sequence of pathways known as the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop.[25][26] The nigrostriatal component of the loop consists of the SNc, giving rise to both inhibitory and excitatory pathways that run from the striatum into the globus pallidus, before carrying on to the thalamus, or into the subthalamic nucleus before heading into the thalamus. The dopaminergic neurons in this circuit increase the magnitude of phasic firing in response to positive reward error, that is when the reward exceeds the expected reward. These neurons do not decrease phasic firing during a negative reward prediction (less reward than expected), leading to hypothesis that serotonergic, rather than dopaminergic neurons encode reward loss (source?). Dopamine phasic activity also increases during cues that signal negative events, however dopaminergic neuron stimulation still induces place preference, indicating its main role in evaluating a positive stimulus. From these findings, two hypotheses have developed, as to the role of the basal ganglia and nigrostiatal dopamine circuits in action selection. The first model suggests a "critic" which encodes value, and an actor which encodes responses to stimuli based on perceived value. However, the second model proposes that the actions do not originate in the basal ganglia, and instead originate in the cortex and are selected by the basal ganglia. This model proposes that the direct pathway controls appropriate behavior and the indirect suppresses actions not suitable for the situation. This model proposes that tonic dopaminergic firing increases the activity of the direct pathway, causing a bias towards executing actions faster.[27]
These models of the basal ganglia are thought to be relevant to the study of ADHD, Tourette syndrome, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, OCD,[28][29] and addiction. For example, Parkinson's disease is hypothesized to be a result of excessive inhibitory pathway activity, which explains the slow movement and cognitive deficits, while Tourettes is proposed to be a result of excessive excitatory activity resulting in the tics characteristic of Tourettes.[27]
Mesocorticolimbic pathways, as mentioned above in relation to the basal ganglia, are thought to mediate learning. Various models have been proposed, however the dominant one is that of temporal difference learning, in which a prediction is made before a reward and afterwards adjustment is made based on a learning factor and reward yield versus expectation leading to a learning curve.[30]
The ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra pars compacta receive inputs from other neurotransmitters systems, including glutaminergic inputs, GABAergic inputs, cholinergic inputs, and inputs from other monoaminergic nuclei. The VTA contains 5-HT1A receptors that exert a biphasic effects on firing, with low doses of 5-HT1A receptor agonists eliciting an increase in firing rate, and higher doses suppressing activity. The 5-HT2A receptors expressed on dopaminergic neurons increase activity, while 5-HT2C receptors elicit a decrease in activity.[31] The mesolimbic pathway, which projects from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, is also regulated by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. In particular, the activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M2 and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4 inhibits dopamine release, while muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1 activation increases dopamine release.[32] GABAergic inputs from the striatum decrease dopaminergic neuronal activity, and glutaminergic inputs from many cortical and subcortical areas increase the firing rate of dopaminergic neurons. Endocannabinoids also appear to have a modulatory effect on dopamine release from neurons that project out of the VTA and SNc.[33] Noradrenergic inputs deriving from the locus coeruleus have excitatory and inhibitory effects on the dopaminergic neurons that project out of the VTA and SNc.[34][35] The excitatory orexinergic inputs to the VTA originate in the lateral hypothalamus and may regulate the baseline firing of VTA dopaminergic neurons.[36][37]
Neurotransmitter | Origin | Type of Connection | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Glutamate | Excitatory projections into the VTA and SNc | [34] | |
GABA |
|
Inhibitory projections into the VTA and SNc | [34] |
Serotonin | Modulatory effect, depending on receptor subtype Produces a biphasic effect on VTA neurons |
[34] | |
Norepinephrine |
|
Modulatory effect, depending on receptor subtype The excitatory and inhibitory effects of the LC on the VTA and SNc are time-dependent |
[34][35] |
Endocannabinoids | Excitatory effect on dopaminergic neurons from inhibiting GABAergic inputs Inhibitory effect on dopaminergic neurons from inhibiting glutamatergic inputs May interact with orexins via CB1–OX1 receptor heterodimers to regulate neuronal firing |
[33][34][36][38] | |
Acetylcholine | Modulatory effect, depending on receptor subtype | [34] | |
Orexin | Excitatory effect on dopaminergic neurons via signaling through orexin receptors (OX1 and OX2) Increases both tonic and phasic firing of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA May interact with endocannabinoids via CB1–OX1 receptor heterodimers to regulate neuronal firing |
[36][37][38] |
Recent studies on intracranial self-administration of neurochemicals (drugs) found that rats learn to self-administer various drugs into the mesolimbic dopamine structures–the posterior ventral tegmental area, medial shell nucleus accumbens and medial olfactory tubercle. ... In the 1970s it was recognized that the olfactory tubercle contains a striatal component, which is filled with GABAergic medium spiny neurons receiving glutamatergic inputs form cortical regions and dopaminergic inputs from the VTA and projecting to the ventral pallidum just like the nucleus accumbens
Neurons from the SNc densely innervate the dorsal striatum where they play a critical role in the learning and execution of motor programs. Neurons from the VTA innervate the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, and cingulate cortex. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior, attention, and multiple forms of memory. ... Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). ... DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control.
Relationship of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary, or adenohypophysis, receives rich blood flow from the capillaries of the portal hypophyseal system. This system delivers factors released by hypothalamic neurons into portal capillaries at the median eminence. The figure shows one such projection, from the tuberal (arcuate) nuclei via the tuberoinfundibular tract to the median eminence.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in: |date=
(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
• Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.
• Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ...
These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is often called "top-down" control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions, including association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ...
In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in: |date=
(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in: |date=
(help); no-break space character in |first=
at position 5 (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
To summarize: the emerging realization that many diverse pleasures share overlapping brain substrates; better neuroimaging maps for encoding human pleasure in orbitofrontal cortex; identification of hotspots and separable brain mechanisms for generating 'liking' and 'wanting' for the same reward; identification of larger keyboard patterns of generators for desire and dread within NAc, with multiple modes of function; and the realization that dopamine and most 'pleasure electrode' candidates for brain hedonic generators probably did not cause much pleasure after all.
{{cite book}}
: |edition=
has extra text (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in: |date=
(help); no-break space character in |first2=
at position 7 (help); no-break space character in |first=
at position 5 (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
{{cite journal}}
: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors=
(help)
{{cite book}}
: |first1=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Thus, it is conceivable that low levels of CB1 receptors are located on glutamatergic and GABAergic terminals impinging on DA neurons [127, 214], where they can fine-tune the release of inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter and regulate DA neuron firing.
Consistently, in vitro electrophysiological experiments from independent laboratories have provided evidence of CB1 receptor localization on glutamatergic and GABAergic axon terminals in the VTA and SNc.
It has been shown that electrical stimulation of LC results in an excitation followed by a brief inhibition of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons through an α1 receptor dependent mechanism (Grenhoff et al., 1993).
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
Direct CB1-HcrtR1 interaction was first proposed in 2003 (Hilairet et al., 2003). Indeed, a 100-fold increase in the potency of hypocretin-1 to activate the ERK signaling was observed when CB1 and HcrtR1 were co-expressed ... In this study, a higher potency of hypocretin-1 to regulate CB1-HcrtR1 heteromer compared with the HcrtR1-HcrtR1 homomer was reported (Ward et al., 2011b). These data provide unambiguous identification of CB1-HcrtR1 heteromerization, which has a substantial functional impact. ... The existence of a cross-talk between the hypocretinergic and endocannabinoid systems is strongly supported by their partially overlapping anatomical distribution and common role in several physiological and pathological processes. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying this interaction. ... Acting as a retrograde messenger, endocannabinoids modulate the glutamatergic excitatory and GABAergic inhibitory synaptic inputs into the dopaminergic neurons of the VTA and the glutamate transmission in the NAc. Thus, the activation of CB1 receptors present on axon terminals of GABAergic neurons in the VTA inhibits GABA transmission, removing this inhibitory input on dopaminergic neurons (Riegel and Lupica, 2004). Glutamate synaptic transmission in the VTA and NAc, mainly from neurons of the PFC, is similarly modulated by the activation of CB1 receptors (Melis et al., 2004).
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)Orexin receptor subtypes readily formed homo- and hetero(di)mers, as suggested by significant BRET signals. CB1 receptors formed homodimers, and they also heterodimerized with both orexin receptors. ... In conclusion, orexin receptors have a significant propensity to make homo- and heterodi-/oligomeric complexes. However, it is unclear whether this affects their signaling. As orexin receptors efficiently signal via endocannabinoid production to CB1 receptors, dimerization could be an effective way of forming signal complexes with optimal cannabinoid concentrations available for cannabinoid receptors.
| |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acetylcholine |
| ||||||||
BA/M |
| ||||||||
AA |
|