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{{short description|Series of pandemics (541–767 c.e.)}}
{{About|the series of outbreaks of plague, 541{{endash}}767|the first episode of the First Plague Pandemic, 541{{endash}}549|Plague of Justinian}}

[[File:Plaguet03.jpg|thumb]]
The '''first plague pandemic''' was the first historically recorded [[Old World]] [[pandemic]] of [[Plague (disease)|plague]], the [[contagious disease]] caused by the [[Bacteria|bacterium]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''. Also called the '''early medieval pandemic''', it began with the [[Plague of Justinian]] in 541 and continued until 750 or 767; at least fifteen or eighteen major waves of plague following the Justinianic plague have been identified from historical records.<ref name="GlatterFinkelman2021">{{cite journal |last1=Glatter |first1=Kathryn A. |last2=Finkelman |first2=Paul |date=February 2021 |title=History of the Plague: An Ancient Pandemic for the Age of COVID-19 |journal=[[The American Journal of Medicine]] |volume=134 |issue=2 |pages=176–181 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.08.019 |pmid=32979306 |pmc=7513766 |s2cid=221882331 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Arrizabalaga|first=Jon|title=plague and epidemics|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-4645|work=The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages|year=2010|editor-last=Bjork|editor-first=Robert E.|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866262-4|quote=The first - called the Plague of Justinian and described by Procopius - spread through Europe and Asia Minor from Egypt in 541 and included fifteen epidemics until 767|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Stathakopoulos|first=Dionysios|title=Plague, Justinianic (Early Medieval Pandemic)|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3757|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|quote=bubonic plague that began in 541 and returned in some eighteen waves (approximately one every twelve years) until 750|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> The pandemic affected the [[Mediterranean Basin]] most severely and most frequently, but also infected the [[Near East]] and [[Northern Europe]],<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Stathakopoulos|first=Dionysios|title=Plague, Justinianic (Early Medieval Pandemic)|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3757|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> and potentially East Asia as well.<ref name="CompleteHistoryoftheBlackDeath" /> The Roman emperor [[Justinian I]]'s name is sometimes applied to the whole series of plague epidemics in [[Late antiquity|late Antiquity]].

The pandemic is best known from its first and last outbreaks: the Justinianic Plague of 541{{Endash}}549, described by the contemporary Roman historian [[Procopius]], and the late 8th century plague of Naples described by Neapolitan historian [[John the Deacon (Neapolitan historian)|John the Deacon]] in the following century (distinct from the much later [[Naples Plague]]). Other accounts from contemporaries of the pandemic are included in the texts of [[Evagrius Scholasticus]], [[John of Ephesus]], [[Gregory of Tours]], [[Paul the Deacon]], and [[Theophanes the Confessor]]; most seem to have believed plague was a [[divine punishment]] for human misdeeds.<ref name=":0" />

==Terminology==
While [[Latin]] and [[Byzantine Greek]] texts treated the disease as a generic pestilence ({{Lang-grc|λοιμός|translit=loimós|links=no}}, {{Lang-la|plaga|links=no}}), only later did [[Arabic]] writers term the condition ''ṭāʿūn'' (to some extent interchangeable with ''wabāʾ'', 'plague').<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kitab-project.org/2020/04/22/contagioninthecorpus/ |title=Contagion in the Corpus: The Black Death and Where to Find It |first=Gowaart |last=Van Den Bossche |date=22 April 2020 |website=kitab-project.org |access-date=16 May 2020 |archive-date=11 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811181209/http://kitab-project.org/2020/04/22/contagioninthecorpus/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In [[Syriac language|Syriac]], both [[bubonic plague]] and the [[bubo]]es themselves are called ''sharʿūṭā''. The ''[[Chronicle of Seert]]'' makes this term synonymous with Arabic ''ṭāʿūn''. Often, however, Syriac writers referred to an outbreak simply as a pestilence or mortality, ''mawtānā'', equivalent to Arabic ''wabāʾ''. In [[Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor]]'s ''Historia Miscellanea'', the clarifying combined form ''mawtānā d sharʿūṭā'' (plague of tumors) is found. The ''Chronicle of 640'' of [[Thomas the Presbyter]] dates the "first plague" (''mawtānā qadmayā'') to the year [[Anno Graecorum|AG]] 854 (AD 542/3).<ref name=Syriac>{{citation |author=Michael G. Morony |chapter=‘For Whom Does the Writer Write?’: The First Bubonic Plague Pandemic According to Syriac Sources |title=Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750 |editor=Lester K. Little |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |pages=59–86}}, at 61–63.</ref>

==Plague in Africa and South Arabia==
Several sources attest the plague's origins in Africa. According to [[Jacob of Edessa]] (died 708), the "great plague (''mawtānā rabbā'') began in the region of Kush ([[Nubia]]), south of Egypt, in the year AG 853 (AD 541–542). [[Evagrius Scholasticus]] (died 594) and the ''Historia Miscellanea'' also place its origins in [[Aethiopia]] (Nubia) on the border of Egypt. [[Michael the Syrian]], relying on the lost chronicle of [[John of Ephesus]] (died c. 590), says that it began in Kush on the border of Egypt and in [[Himyar]] (Yemen). An inscription dated to 543 records how [[Abraha]], the Ethiopian ruler of Himyar, repaired the [[Marib Dam|Maʾrib dam]] after sickness and death had struck the local community. The ''Chronicle of Seert'' records that [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksum]] (''al-Habasha'') was hit by the pandemic.<ref name=Syriac/>

Early Arabic sources record that plague was endemic in Nubia and Abyssinia.<ref name=Sarris>{{citation |author=Peter Sarris |chapter=Bubonic Plague in Byzantium: The Evidence of Non-Literary Sources |title=Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750 |editor=Lester K. Little |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |pages=119–132}}, at 121–123.</ref> The testimony of [[Procopius]], who says that the plague began in [[Pelusium]] in the east of the [[Nile Delta]] and then spread to [[Alexandria]], is consistent with an introduction from the [[Red Sea]] region, possible via ship-borne rats if the [[Canal of the Pharaohs]] was still open. The plague could have originated in [[Indo-Roman trade|commercial links with India]] or in growing Roman religious links with Nubia and Aksum.<ref name=McCormick>{{citation |author=Michael McCormick |chapter=Toward a Molecular History of the Justinianic Pandemic |title=Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750 |editor=Lester K. Little |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |pages=290–312}}, at 303–304.</ref> A link with India is rendered less likely by the fact that the plague arrived in the Roman Empire before arriving in Persia or China, which had closer links with India. According to Peter Sarris, the "geopolitical context of the early sixth century," with an Aksumite–Roman alliance against Himyar and Persia, "was arguably the crucial prerequisite for the transmission of the plague from Africa to Byzantium."<ref name=Sarris/>

== Plague of Justinian (541{{Endash}}549) ==
{{Main|Plague of Justinian|Plague of Mohill}}

== Plagues in Francia (541{{Endash}}) ==
According to the [[bishop]]-[[Chronicle|chronicler]] of [[Tours]] in the late 6th century, [[Gregory of Tours]], there were numerous epidemics of plague in the [[Kingdom of the Franks]] after the Justinianic Plague struck ''{{Lang-la|Arelate|label=none}}'' ([[Arles]]) and the surrounding region in the late 540s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Kohn|first=George C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC|title=Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4381-2923-5|pages=128–129|language=en|chapter=Frankish Plagues of the Sixth Century}}</ref> Various portents were witnessed and to expiate them the inhabitants of affected areas resorted to [[procession]]s, [[prayer]]s, and [[vigil]]s.<ref name=":1" />

Gregory records an epidemic in 571 in the [[Auvergne]] and in the cities of ''{{Lang-la|Divio|label=none}}'' ([[Dijon]]), {{Lang-la|[[Avaricum]]|label=none}} ([[Bourges]]), {{Lang-la|Cabillonum|label=none}} ([[Chalon-sur-Saône]]), and {{Lang-la|[[Lugdunum]]|label=none}} ([[Lyon]]).<ref name=":1" /> Gregory's description of the plague as causing wounds in the armpit or groin that he described as resembling snakebite and of patients dying delirious within two or three days allow identification of the disease as bubonic plague; the "wounds" are the characteristic [[bubo|buboes]].<ref name=":1" />

In 582 Gregory of Tours reports an epidemic in {{Lang-la|Narbo Martius|label=none}} ([[Narbonne]]). According to him, the majority of the townsfolk at [[Albi]] in 584 died of an outbreak of plague.<ref name=":1" />

{{Lang-la|Massilia|label=none}} ([[Marseille]]) was hit by plague in 588; there the king [[Guntram]] of [[Francia]] recommended a strict diet of [[barley bread]] and water.<ref name=":1" /> Gregory blames a ship arriving from [[Hispania]] for being the source of the contagion, and the epidemic recurred several times thereafter.<ref name=":1" />

In 590 Gregory records another plague epidemic at {{Lang-la|Vivarium|label=none}} ([[Viviers, Ardèche|Viviers]]) and at {{Lang-la|Avenio|label=none}} ([[Avignon]]) at the same time as the plague broke out in Rome under [[Pope Pelagius II]].<ref name=":1" />

== Plague of Rome (590) ==
{{Main|Roman Plague of 590}}

== Plague of Sheroe (627{{Endash}}628) ==
{{Main|Plague of Sheroe}}

== Plague of Amwas (638{{Endash}}639) == 
{{Main|Plague of Amwas}} 
The plague of Amwas (Arabic: طاعون عمواس, romanized: ṭāʿūn ʿAmwās), also spelled plague of Emmaus, was an ancient bubonic plague epidemic that afflicted Islamic Syria in 638–639, during the first plague pandemic and toward the end of the Muslim conquest of the region.

== Plague of 664 ==
{{Main|Plague of 664}}

== Plagues of 698–701 and of 746–747 ==
These plagues affected the [[Byzantine Empire]], [[West Asia]], [[Syria (region)|Syria]], and [[Mesopotamia]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Plague and the end of Antiquity|editor-last=Little|editor-first=Lester |chapter=Crime and Punishment |first=Dionysios|last=Stathakopoulos|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-84639-4|location=Cambridge|page=104}}</ref> and the Byzantine Empire, West Asia, and [[Africa]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Turner|first=David|date=November 1990|title=The Politics of Despair: The Plague of 746–747 and Iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire1|journal=Annual of the British School at Athens |language=en|volume=85|pages=419–434|doi=10.1017/S006824540001577X|s2cid=153709117|issn=2045-2403}}</ref> respectively.

==Possible occurrences in China==
In 610, [[Chao Yuanfang]] mentioned an endemic plague of "malignant bubo" described as "coming on abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue."<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KjLHAOE7irsC&dq=ch%27ao+yuan-fan&pg=PA41 | isbn=9781843832140 | title=The Black Death, 1346-1353: The Complete History | year=2006 | publisher=Boydell Press }}</ref> Sun Simo, who died in 652, also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in [[Lingnan]] ([[Guangdong]]). Ole Benedictow posits that it was an ffshoot of the first plague pandemic that reached Chinese territory around 600.<ref name="CompleteHistoryoftheBlackDeath">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkI3EAAAQBAJ&dq=malignant+bubo+sun+szu-mo&pg=PA130 | isbn=9781783275168 | title=The Complete History of the Black Death | year=2021 | publisher=Boydell & Brewer }}</ref>

==Consequences==
The historian Lester Little suggests that just as the Black Death led to the near disappearance of serfdom in western Europe, the first pandemic resulted in the end of ancient [[slavery]], at least in Italy and Spain.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Plague and the end of Antiquity|editor-last=Little|editor-first=Lester |chapter=Life and Afterlife of the First Plague Pandemic |first=Lester |last=Little|page=23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-84639-4|location=Cambridge, UK}}</ref> A 2019 study, however, suggests that the first plague pandemic was not a major cause of the demographic, economic, political, and social changes across Europe and the Near East from the 6th to 8th centuries AD and that upper estimates of the pandemic's mortality are unsupported by historical, archaeological, genetic, and palynological evidence.<ref name="MordechaiEtAl2019">{{cite journal |last1=Mordechai |first1=Lee |last2=Eisenberg |first2=Merle |last3=Newfield |first3=Timothy P. |last4=Izdebski |first4=Adam |last5=Kay |first5=Janet E. |last6=Poinar |first6=Hendrik |date=2 December 2019 |title=The Justinianic Plague: An inconsequential pandemic? |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=116 |issue=51 |pages=25546–25554 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1903797116 |pmid=31792176 |pmc=6926030 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11625546M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{Cite book |title=Plague and the end of Antiquity|editor-last=Little|editor-first=Lester |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-84639-4|location=Cambridge, UK}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|last=Snowden|first=Frank M.|title=Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present|date=2019|publisher=Yale University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctvqc6gg5|isbn=978-0-300-19221-6|jstor=j.ctvqc6gg5|s2cid=242420869}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Monica H.|date=2018-12-24|title=Putting Africa on the Black Death map: Narratives from genetics and history|url=http://journals.openedition.org/afriques/2125|journal=Afriques. Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire|language=en|issue=9|doi=10.4000/afriques.2125|issn=2108-6796|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Sussman|first=George D.|date=2015|title=Scientists Doing History: Central Africa and the Origins of the First Plague Pandemic|journal=Journal of World History|volume=26|issue=2|pages=325–354|jstor=43901755|issn=1045-6007}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Tsiamis|first1=Costas|title=Medicine and Healing in the Ancient Mediterranean|last2=Poulakou-Rebelakou|first2=Effie|last3=Androutsos|first3=George|publisher=Oxbow Books|year=2014|isbn=978-1-78297-235-8|editor-last=Michaelides|editor-first=Demetrios|pages=334–337|chapter=The Role of the Egyptian Sea and Land Routes in the Justinian Plague: the Case of Pelusium|jstor=j.ctvh1djxz}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Pamuk|first1=Şevket|last2=Shatzmiller|first2=Maya|date=2014|title=Plagues, Wages, and Economic Change in the Islamic Middle East, 700–1500|journal=The Journal of Economic History|volume=74|issue=1|pages=196–229|doi=10.1017/S0022050714000072|jstor=24550555|s2cid=13687533 |issn=0022-0507|doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lee|first=A. D.|title=From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome|date=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-2790-5|chapter=Justinian and the End of Antiquity|pages=286–300|jstor=10.3366/j.ctt1g0b1z1.23}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=P.|date=1979|title=The "Justinianic" Plague|journal=Byzantion|volume=49|pages=5–20|jstor=44172672|pmid=17252657|issn=0378-2506}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Dols|first=Michael W.|date=1974|title=Plague in Early Islamic History|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=94|issue=3|pages=371–383|doi=10.2307/600071|jstor=600071|issn=0003-0279}}

[[Category:First plague pandemic| ]]
[[Category:Plague pandemics| 1st]]
[[Category:Pelusium]]

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