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{{Short description|Former legal and political organisation in Somalia}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = Islamic Courts Union
| native_name = {{native name|so|Midowga Maxkamadaha Islaamiga}} {{native name|ar|اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية}}
| leader = [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]]<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/RL33911.pdf |title=Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |year=2011 |pages=18–22}}</ref>
| foundation = 2000
| ideology = [[Islamism]]
| headquarters = [[Mogadishu]]
| country = [[Somalia]]
| dissolved = 2007–2009
| colors = 
| governing_body = Islamic Courts Supreme Council
| predecessor = Sharia Courts
| successor = [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]]
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
}}

The '''Islamic Courts Union''' ({{lang-so|Midowga Maxkamadaha Islaamiga}}) was a legal and political organization founded by [[Mogadishu]]-based Sharia courts during the early 2000s to combat the lawlessness stemming from the [[Somali Civil War]]. By mid-to-late 2006, the Islamic Courts had expanded their influence to become the ''[[de facto]]'' government in most of southern and central Somalia.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2FmDwAAQBAJ |title=Islam and Politics Around the World |last2=Shahin |first2=Emad El-Din |date=2018-08-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-090041-0 |language=en}}</ref>

Immediately following the collapse of the [[Somali Democratic Republic]] in early 1991, a new phenomenon emerged — the establishment of [[Sharia]] courts to impose law and order on various volatile neighborhoods of Mogadishu.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=63}} These independent courts often found their existence being threatened by [[warlord]]s, which necessitated cooperation between them that eventually led to their unification into the entity known as the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) in 2000. Comprising many different courts, the union was a diffuse organization with differing leaders sending conflicting messages about the group's goals. Some members had national political ambitions, while others wanted to focus on resolving local disputes and bringing people closer to Islam.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Harper |first=Mary |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/940704916 |title=Getting Somalia Wrong?: Faith, War and Hope in a Shattered State (African Arguments) |date=2012 |publisher=Zed Books |oclc=940704916}}</ref> The ICU garnered widespread support among Somalis, who regarded Islam as one of the few remaining trustworthy institutions in the aftermath of the state's collapse. By originating from the [[grassroots]] level, asserting their [[governance]] under the mantle of religious [[impartiality]] and fighting the widely despised [[warlord]]s controlling much of the city, the ICU rapidly gained the confidence of a populace exhausted by warfare.<ref name="Religious Literacy Project">{{cite web |title=The Islamic Courts Union |url=https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/islamic-courts-union |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804192048/https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/islamic-courts-union |archive-date=4 August 2020 |access-date=30 September 2020 |publisher=Harvard Divinity School}}</ref><ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Shephard |first=Michelle |date=2017-03-10 |title=My meeting with a forgotten terrorist in Somalia |language=en-CA |work=The Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2017/03/10/my-meeting-with-a-forgotten-terrorist-in-somalia.html |access-date=2022-04-13 |issn=0319-0781}}</ref>

In the summer of 2006, the ICU [[Battle of Mogadishu (2006)|decisively defeated]] a [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism|Somali warlord alliance]] funded by the American [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and became the first entity to consolidate control over all of [[Mogadishu]] since the collapse of the state in 1991.<ref name=":5" /> The period that followed is widely heralded as the most stable and productive period Somalia had seen up to that point since the outbreak of the [[civil war]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |date=2006-06-17 |title=Guns finally silent in Somalia's capital |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna13375512 |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Somalia Mourns a 'Golden Era' as Crisis Worsens {{!}} Africa Faith and Justice Network |url=https://afjn.org/somalia-mourns-a-golden-era-as-crisis-worsens/ |access-date=2021-09-04 |website=afjn.org|date=11 December 2007 }}</ref><ref name=":9" /> Residents of Mogadishu were finally able to move around the city without fear of attack, the [[Aden Adde International Airport|international airport]] and [[Port of Mogadishu|seaport]] were opened for the first time in over a decade, a massive debris clean up campaign was started and there was a significant reduction of arms on the streets.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 Aug 2006 |title=Somalia's High Stakes Power Struggle |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somalias-high-stakes-power-struggle |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Six months into their reign, the Islamic Courts Union was toppled during the final days of 2006 by a full scale [[War in Somalia (2006–2009)|Ethiopian invasion of Somalia]], supported by the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 December 2006 |title=US backs Ethiopian attacks in Somalia |url=https://sudantribune.com/article19894/ |website=Sudan Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mazzetti |first=Mark |date=2006-12-27 |title=U.S. Signals Backing for Ethiopian Incursion Into Somalia |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/27/world/africa/27africa.html |access-date=2022-11-03 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-01-13 |title=How US forged an alliance with Ethiopia over invasion |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/jan/13/alqaida.usa |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-12-08 |title=WikiLeaks Reveals U.S. Twisted Ethiopia's Arm to Invade Somalia - FPIF |url=https://fpif.org/wikileaks_reveals_us_twisted_ethiopias_arm_to_invade_somalia/ |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=Foreign Policy In Focus |language=en-US}}</ref> Much of the organizational structure of the ICU disintegrated early on in 2007 due to the invasion as the ENDF/US forces brought the [[Transitional Federal Government of Somalia|Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG) to power.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CHERIAN |first=JOHN |title=Bush war in Africa |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30189974.ece |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=Frontline |date=25 January 2007 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-05-22 |title=Ethiopia reaps U.S. aid by enlisting in war on terror and hiring influential lobbyists - ICIJ |url=https://www.icij.org/investigations/collateraldamage/ethiopia-reaps-us-aid-enlisting-war-terror-and-hiring-influential/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |language=en-US}}</ref> Following the collapse of courts rule, much of the high ranking ICU leadership sought refuge in [[Eritrea]]. In the insurgency that followed the Ethiopian invasion, a radical youth militia within the military wing of the Islamic Courts, [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]], stayed behind and broke away, initially greatly empowering themselves as a popular resistance movement against the occupation.

During 2007 and 2008, ICU forces participated in the insurgency against Ethiopian troops occupying Somalia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Gettleman |first=Jeffrey |date=2008-11-13 |title=Islamists Continue Advance Through Somalia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/14/world/africa/14somalia.html |access-date=2024-05-29 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |quote=...other parts of Somalia such as Beledweyne on the Ethiopian border, and Giohar, north of Mogadishu are now falling under the control of a more moderate insurgent group, the Islamic Courts Union. This group receives strong support...}}</ref> High-ranking members of the Islamic Courts later founded the [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]] (ARS) in late 2007, which would merge with the [[Transitional Federal Government of Somalia|TFG]] in late 2008. Former chairman of the Islamic Courts Union, [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]], became president of Somalia in 2009, replacing successfully the Transitional Government with the [[Federal Government of Somalia]]. In 2012, the country adopted a new [[constitution]] that declared Somalia an [[Islamic state]] with [[Sharia]] as its primary source of law.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|p=196}}

== Origins ==

=== Historical background ===
Islamic law ([[Sharia]]) was used during the reign of the Somali [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran Sultantate]]. After existing for about 300 years, it declined during the [[17th century]] after abandoning Sharia and becoming oppressive.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abdurahman |first=Abdullahi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1dDDwAAQBAJ |title=Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1 |date=2017-09-18 |publisher=Adonis and Abbey Publishers |isbn=978-1-909112-79-7 |pages=64 |language=en |quote=However, the later Ajurans ruler abandoned Sharia law, and became oppressive}}</ref> During the [[19th century]], before the [[Scramble for Africa]] had arrived to Somali territories, Sharia courts headed by ''qadis'' (Islamic judges) operated all along the coast.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXoMAQAAMAAJ |title=Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Michigan State University, 2-5 May, 1973 |date=1975 |publisher=African Studies Center, Michigan State University |editor-last=Marcus |editor-first=Harold G. |pages=101–115 |language=en |chapter=Migrations, Islam, and politics in Somali Benaadir, 1500-1843 |editor-last2=Schoonmaker |editor-first2=Kathleen M.}}</ref>

The Islamic courts were not the first attempt to use Islam to quell the growing disorder in Somalia during at the start of the 1990s. Just before the full outbreak of the Somali Civil War, a group of sixty highly prominent members of Somali society under the banner of "Islamic Call" published a public manifesto addressed to President [[Siad Barre|Mohammed Siad Barre]]. The manifesto warned that he had committed serious transgressions against the laws of Islam and called for him to peacefully step down and transition power, but their attempts were unsuccessful.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|pp=166–167}}

=== First Sharia Courts ===
The first attempts to use Sharia courts to build local stability began immediately after the state completely collapsed in January 1991. In the weeks following the total collapse, militias that had toppled the government began hunting down civilians based off their clan identity. Around this time, several well-known Somali scholars such as Sheikh Sharif Sharafow, Sheikh Ibrahim Suley and Sheikh Mohamed Moallin Hassan established Sharia courts in order to rescue these civilians from attack and to address the rising lawlessness.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=63}} The first Shari'a courts were started on a very small local neighborhood level by Somali religious leaders as a way to address issues in their communities. Most problems they dealt with were related to petty crimes and family disputes. In the chaotic political context of war torn Mogadishu the religious leaders were considered by most Somalis as some of the only people who could be trusted to impartially resolve disputes. Importantly, the courts also did not take positions on national-political or clan affairs, lending significant credence to their purported impartiality.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|p=170}}

Around the same time as the creation of the Mogadishu courts, Sheikh Mohamed Haji Yusuf and Sheikh Mohamud A. Nur established a new Islamic court in the [[Luuq District|Luuq district]] of [[Gedo]] region during 1992. The court had more success than its counterparts in Mogadishu, and consequently [[Luuq District|Luuq district]] was the safest area in Somalia during much of the 1990s. The court dissolved in 1997 when the [[Somali National Front]] and Ethiopian military collaborated to topple it.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=64}}

==== The Sheikh Ali-Dhere court ====
In 1994, the opening of a court in Mogadishu run by a [[Sheikh]] named [[Ali Dhere|Ali Dheere]] had a significant impact on the expansion of the Sharia courts system in the city. Dheere, who lived in one of the most dangerous regions of war-torn Mogadishu, became exhausted with the growing anarchy. He decided to put his religious training to use by setting up the first major Sharia court in Somalia. The infamous "Siisii Street" ran through his community and became notorious for its dangerous reputation.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=64}}

{{blockquote|''Siraadka Qiyaama iyo Siisii Allow na mooti'' (Translation: "Oh god save me from the troubles that are associated with the day of judgement and those of Siisii Street")|A popular saying in war torn Mogadishu prior to the establishment of Sheikh Ali Dheeres court}}

Primarily his court focused on aiding merchants and store owners resolve their disputes, helping people arrange legal agreements for large purchases like homes, and trying people for crimes. Local scholars, elders, businessmen and political leaders cooperated with Dheere in a bid to end the spiralling chaos in their community.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=64}} Soon Ali Dheere had a staff that apprehended bandits and thieves in the area to bring them to be put on trial. His success in bringing order to his neighborhood in Mogadishu became well known throughout the city and led to the establishment of other copycat Sharia courts.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|p=170}} The court did not shy away from strict punishments and even carried out executions. Soon word began rapidly spreading that law and order was being established in Dheeres sector of the city and the crime rate in the area subsequently dropped dramatically.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=64}}

=== Rise of the Mogadishu Islamic Courts ===
In 1994 and 1995 other Sharia courthouses began opening up in northern Mogadishu, operating independently in their own self contained jurisdictions in the city.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=64}} During these early years the courts began gaining considerable support for deploying security forces to protect schools and hospitals from warlord incursions and predatory bandits.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee |date=12 June 2006 |title=Somalia's Islamists differ from Taliban |pages=A11 |work=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]}}</ref> Before the establishment of these courts, acts of [[rape]] had become commonplace in north Mogadishu since 1991. The establishment of the [[judiciary]] made a considerable impact on the security situation as the courts made a point of handing out the [[capital punishment]] of [[stoning]] to rapists. By 1997 there had been seven cases of execution by stoning in Somalia. It has been noted that suppression of war time [[Sexual abuse|sexual violence]] was a major underlying factor in Somali women's support for the Islamic Courts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abdulle. |first=Alasow, Omar |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/960206270 |title=Violations of the rules applicable in non-international armed conflicts and their possible causes : the case of Somalia |date=2010 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-16475-8 |oclc=960206270}}</ref>

The first court did not start in southern Mogadishu until 1998, as the de facto ruler of the territory, General [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid|Mohammed Farah Aidid]] and his faction the [[Somali National Alliance]] opposed the Islamic courts, and no progress occurred until after Aidids death. [[Ali Mahdi Muhammad|Ali Mahdi]], Aidids prime rival controlling the northern part of the city, issued a decree to dismantle Ali Dheere's Court after perceiving the Sheikhs rising popularity as a threat to his own authority. As the years passed, with nothing but warlords offering to replace its authority, the rule of the sharia courts began to cement.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tughral |first=Yamin |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1101424680 |title=UN peacekeeping operations in Somalia 1992-1995 : The Pakistani Perspective |year=2019 |publisher=Paramount Books |isbn=978-969-637-522-7 |pages=43–44 |oclc=1101424680}}</ref>

By 1999 the multiple Islamic courts had jurisdiction over much of the south of the city as well and five active Sharia courts were operating in the region.<ref name="Cedric Barnes and Harun Hassan, 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Barnes |first1=Cedric |last2=Harun |first2=Hassan |date=24 July 2007 |title=The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17531050701452382 |journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=151–160 |doi=10.1080/17531050701452382 |access-date=30 September 2020 |s2cid=154453168}}</ref> The courts were not an organized movement or a government, but represented the closest thing Somalia had to either. Their influence was enhanced by financial donors abroad who sought to bring any semblance of stability to the country.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Somalia's High Stakes Power Struggle |language=en |work=Council on Foreign Relations |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somalias-high-stakes-power-struggle |access-date=2018-10-24}}</ref> While many Somalis voiced disapproval of the more fundamentalist ways of the original Sharia courts, it was noted that most felt that they were well organized and effective civil administrators.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-03-06 |title=Wall Street, Somalia, and Jack Sparrow |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/wall-street-somalia-and-j_b_163409 |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref>

== Consolidation of Islamic Courts ==
In April 1999, several Sharia courts united for the first time, taking control of Mogadishu's Bakara Market from the local warlords. By the end of the year, their joint efforts had successfully cornered numerous warlords to the outskirts of Mogadishu, although they lacked the resources to completely dominate the city.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|p=173}}

By 2000, having liberated a significant portion of the city from warlord control, eleven of these individual Sharia courts amalgamated to establish the Islamic Courts Council. This consolidation led to the unification of their militias into a single combat force. This development marked a pivotal moment in the civil war, as it signified the emergence of the first major non-warlord affiliated Somali force in the city.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Cocodia |first=Jude |date=2021-04-03 |title=Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026 |journal=African Security |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=110–131 |doi=10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026 |s2cid=236350899 |issn=1939-2206}}</ref> Professor Mark Fathi Massoud draws a comparison between the Somalis' late 1990s and early 2000s turn towards local religious courts for self-governance and the historical patterns observed in early democratic Western Europe and colonial North America. In both cases, the establishment of courts and the invocation of the divine played crucial roles in state-building. Massoud highlights that the Sharia courts' use of religion to foster stability has parallels with those courts that significantly influenced the nascent phases of democratic states.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|p=160}}

When the [[Transitional National Government of Somalia]] was established in [[Djibouti]] during the spring of 2000 the momentum of the ICU was slowed. It would not return until it was revived in 2004 by [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed|Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]] who was subsequently elected as chairman of the ICU. The year before in 2003, Sheikh Sharif Ahmed had been a school teacher that had become frustrated with the return of insecurity in north Mogadishu and successfully pushed to rejuvenate the Islamic Courts system in the region.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last1=Barnes |first1=Cedric |last2=Hassan |first2=Harun |date=2007 |title=The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17531050701452382 |journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=151–160 |doi=10.1080/17531050701452382 |issn=1753-1055 |s2cid=154453168}}</ref>

=== Military capacity ===
The ICU did not maintain a significant fighting force as the organization was overwhelmingly focused on providing legal and social services. The deficiency in firepower was especially pronounced in heavy weaponry. According to senior Islamic court officials the union only possessed a total of four [[Technical (vehicle)|technical]] improvised fighting vehicles when the 2006 [[Battle of Mogadishu (2006)|Battle of Mogadishu]] against the [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism|Somali warlord alliance]] broke out.<ref name=":20" />

=== Rise of the Transitional Federal Government ===
Following the failure of the [[Transitional National Government of Somalia]] established in 2000, the [[Transitional Federal Government of Somalia|Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG) led by [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed|Abdullahi Yusuf]] was formed in 2004. Previously aligned closely with Ethiopia, Yusuf's leadership received significant support from the Ethiopian government. This support was believed to be pivotal in his electoral victory for the TFG leadership in an election held in [[Kenya]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Ethiopian troops enter Somalia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/7/21/ethiopian-troops-enter-somalia |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Ethiopian troops cross border into Somalia |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/ethiopian-troops-cross-border-into-somalia.50424 |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=Times of Malta |date=18 June 2006 |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=Somalia gov't says Islamists plan to attack base - Somalia {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia-govt-says-islamists-plan-attack-base |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=reliefweb.int |date=18 June 2006 |language=en}}</ref> Before becoming president of the TFG during 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf was a member of an Ethiopian-backed coalition of warlords that had undermined a previous attempt at restoring a government in Somalia when the [[Transitional National Government of Somalia|Transitional National Government]] (TNG) formed in 2000.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-12-29 |title=Profile: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3732020.stm |access-date=2024-03-09 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> Professor Jude Cocodia, a political science scholar from [[Niger Delta University]], notes that Ethiopia's deep involvement in the formation of the TFG led many Somalis to view the government as inauthentic and essentially a [[Puppet state|puppet regime]] under Ethiopian influence. This sentiment was further amplified by historical events, such as the [[1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War|1982 Border War]], during which Yusuf led the [[Somali Salvation Democratic Front]] (SSDF) and collaborated with invading Ethiopian forces.<ref name=":22" />

The TFG operated entirely outside of Somalia due to instability in Mogadishu and consequently was criticized by Somali citizens and international community. At the time the TFG was only recognized by Kenya and Ethiopia, as the European Union, the United States and other members of the international community refused to fully recognize the TFG's legitimacy until it operated from Mogadishu. To counter this, the TFG moved into Somalia for the first time in 2005, eventually setting up its headquarters south west of Mogadishu in [[Baidoa]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Ismail Ali Ismail |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/620115177 |title=Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia |date=2010 |publisher=Trafford Pub |isbn=978-1-4269-1980-0 |location=[Bloomington, IN] |pages=365–396 |oclc=620115177}}</ref>

== ICU, warlords and War on Terror ==
As the courts started to unify in the early 2000s, tensions escalated with the warlords. Within the framework of the War On Terror, the U.S. government perceived the rise of an Islamic movement in Somalia as a potential terror risk. From 2003 onwards, the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) initiated covert operations against the Islamic Courts Union, aiming to depose them from power.<ref name=":22" /> The union consisted of about eleven courts in this period.<ref name=":25" /> [[The Economist]] described the ICU as more tolerant than the [[Taliban]] and noted that the majority of the Islamic Courts operated on a 'traditionally tolerant [[Sufism|Sufi]]-infused brand of Islam'.<ref name=":28">{{Cite news |date=12 October 2006 |title=Islamists half-ready for holy war |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2006/10/12/islamists-half-ready-for-holy-war |access-date=2023-10-25 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

=== Warlord conflict ===
Beginning in 2005 Mogadishu was hit by a significant wave of unexplained [[assassination]]s and disappearances. The Islamic Courts claimed that covert US government operations and warlords were targeting high ranking ICU officials. According to C. Barnes & H. Hassan,『It was in this context that a military force known as [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]] (‘the Youth’) emerged, related to but seemingly autonomous of the broad based Courts movement.』At the time it was widely believed in Mogadishu that Somali warlords were cooperating with U.S. intelligence agents to kidnap alleged terror suspects, particularly prominent religious leaders. This atmosphere forced the ICU to take a more confrontational stance against the warlords. Full hostilities between the two parties broke out soon after over the issue of controlling Mogadishu's highly profitable makeshift El Ma’an port. The ICU enjoyed widespread support from Mogadishu citizens and business community against the warlords, greatly aiding its ability to seize and control large swathes of the city.<ref name=":18" /> The broad support of Somali women for the union played a significant role in the organizations ability to maintain combat operations against the warlords.<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/RL33911.pdf |title=Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |year=2011 |pages=18–22}}</ref>

At the suggestion of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), anti-ICU warlords united under the banner of the [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism]] (ARPCT).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maruf |first=Harun |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1043065645 |title=Inside al-Shabaab : the secret history of al-Qaeda's most powerful ally |date=2018 |others=Dan Joseph |isbn=978-0-253-03751-0 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |pages=35 |oclc=1043065645}}</ref> The decision to support these warlords generated dissent within the CIA, the US State Department, and European states. Many officials expressed apprehensions that this backing could lead to a major [[Anti-Americanism|anti-American]] backlash in Somalia and greatly empower Islamist factions.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hirsh |first1=Michael |last2=Bartholet |first2=Jeffrey |date=5 June 2006 |title=Fighting in the Shadows; Battles rage near the scene of 'Black Hawk Down'--And a covert American hand is tied to the warlords. |edition=U.S. |pages=36 |work=[[Newsweek]]}}</ref> As fighting for the city was ongoing in March 2006, the courts succeeded in seizing critical roads and infrastructure from the ARPCT. Prominent locals had urged the ICU and the warlord alliance to agree to a [[ceasefire]] to prevent bloodshed in Mogadishu. The ICU pledged to abide by a ceasefire, but mediators between the two organizations reported that the warlord alliance had delayed and refused to commit themselves.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 March 2006 |title=Somali warlords making cease-fire deal in capital difficult, says mediator |agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref>

=== CIA intervention ===
{{Main|CIA activities in Somalia|Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism}}

The [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]] had become increasingly concerned with the growing power of the Islamic Courts Union, and feared that they would make Somalia a haven for [[Al-Qaeda]] to plan attacks from, like in [[Afghanistan]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=U.S. secretly backing warlords in Somalia |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna12826461 |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=NBC News |date=17 May 2006 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=US funding Somali warlords-intelligence experts say - Somalia |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/us-funding-somali-warlords-intelligence-experts-say |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=ReliefWeb |date=5 June 2006 |language=en}}</ref> The Americans approved greater funding for the Somali warlords and further encourage them to counter the ICU, a decision made by top officials in Washington which was later reaffirmed by the U.S. [[National security council|National Security Council]] during meeting about Somalia in March 2006.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-05-19 |title=U.S. Accused of Backing Warlords in Somalia |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-may-19-fg-somalia19-story.html |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> At the time of the meeting there was fierce fighting in between the warlords and the Islamic Courts around Mogadishu, and the decision was taken to make counter-terrorism the top policy priority for Somalia.<ref name=":3" /> According to a report by Ted Dagne, an Africa Research Specialist for the [[Congressional Research Service]], <blockquote>"...the leadership [of the ICU] was often referred to as jihadist, extremist, and at times terrorist by some observers without much evidence to support the allegations. For example, the assessment of the Islamic Courts by U.S. officials was that less than 5% of the Islamic Courts leadership can be considered extremist, according to a senior State Department official."<ref name=":20" /></blockquote>According by the [[International Crisis Group]], the [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism]] had a notorious pattern of seizing innocent clerics with little or no intelligence value, which greatly fed into the already existing perception among Somalis that the Americans and the warlords were waging a war against Islam under the guise of the [[War on terror|War on Terrorism]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Somali leaders say U.S. ignored pleas {{!}} The Spokesman-Review |url=https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2006/jun/18/somali-leaders-say-us-ignored-pleas/ |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=www.spokesman.com}}</ref><ref name=":20" /> According to Mary Harper, a journalist with BBC Africa, the Islamic Courts Union was in reality more of a loose federation and only began to unite into a homogeneous body with a clear authority when its existence was threatened by the [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism|ARPCT]]. The [[Transitional federal government of Somalia|Transitional Federal Government of Somalia]], being both in contention with the ICU and backed by the [[United States]], openly opposed the Americans operation to fund the warlords.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |date=8 June 2006 |title=Efforts by C.I.A. Fail in Somalia, Officials Charge |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/08/world/africa/08intel.html?ex=1307419200&en=7b3e5a78230b7e10&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |work=New York Times}}</ref> Despite significant opposition in the government, several members of the CIA backed warlord alliance were holding senior posts within the TFG while fighting against the ICU was ongoing.<ref name=":20" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2006 |title=Islamists take Somali capital, four warlord-ministers sacked |work=[[Deutsche Presse-Agentur]]}}</ref> Nine of Mogadishu's most prominent community leaders that opposed the ICU claim they secretly flew to neighboring [[Djibouti]] in early March 2006 and pleaded with U.S. military officials there to stop funding the warlords who were devastating the city. They allege that they warned the Americans that backing the hated warlords would end up greatly empowering the Islamic Courts and inflame the radical elements within it.<ref name=":4" />

American support for the warlords extended to the point where, on numerous occasions, [[Nairobi]]-based [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] officers landed on warlord-controlled airstrips in Mogadishu with large amounts of money for distribution to Somali militias.<ref name=":5" /> According to [[John Prendergast (activist)|John Prendergast]], CIA-operated flights into Somalia had been bringing in $100,000 to US$150,000 per month for the warlords and he further claimed that the flights remained in Somalia for the day so that CIA agents can confer with them.<ref name=":3" /> The CIA also gave its newfound allies surveillance equipment for "tracking al Qaeda suspects".<ref name=":3" /> A [[United Nations]] report on violations of the international [[arms embargo]] on Somalia claimed that the Ethiopian government had armed warlord Mohamed Dheere to fight the ICU.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news |date=17 June 2006 |title=Ethiopia troops crossing into Somalia-top Islamist |work=One India |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2006/06/17/ethiopia-troops-crossing-into-somalia-top-islamist-1150547823.html}}</ref> According to multiple U.S. officials, the decision to use of the warlords as proxies was born from fears of once again committing large numbers of American soldiers to Somalia following the disastrous 1993 [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|Battle of Mogadishu]].<ref name=":5" /> Many of the warlords the Americans funded to fight the Islamic Courts Union were many of the same ones that had fought directly against the Americans in Mogadishu during [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II|UNOSOM II]] in 1993.<ref name=":2" />

By April 2006 much of Mogadishu had fallen under the control of the ICU after clashes with the warlord alliance. The cities air and seaports came under the organizations direct control for the first time. In May they seized the very building where the warlord alliance had been founded and established an Islamic Court in its place.<ref name=":18" />

=== Defeat of the warlord alliance and seizure of Mogadishu ===
{{See also|Battle of Mogadishu (2006)}}

On 5 June 2006, the Islamic Courts Union decisively defeated the warlord alliance in the [[Battle of Mogadishu (2006)|Second Battle of Mogadishu]], gained total authority over the capital and proceeded to establish a 65-mile radius of control around the city. This was a seminal moment in modern Somali history, as the ICU was now the first group to have consolidated control over all of Mogadishu since the collapse of the Somali state.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2006-06-14 |title=Islamic Militia Seizes Somalia's Capital - Forbes.com |url=http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/ap/2006/06/05/ap2794241.html |access-date=2022-04-12 |website= [[Forbes]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614153520/http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/ap/2006/06/05/ap2794241.html |archive-date=14 June 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite news |last=HASSAN |first=MOHAMED OLAD |date=10 June 2006 |title=Somalia's capital calm in Islamic hands |pages=A5 |work=[[The Columbian]] |agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref> According to [[Chatham House]], "The Courts achieved the unthinkable, uniting [[Mogadishu]] for the first time in 16 years, and re-establishing peace and security".<ref>{{cite web |date=4 October 2013 |title=How Al Shabaab was born |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/04/kenya-westgate-mall-attacks |publisher=Guardian}}</ref> The [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism]] soon collapsed, with the majority of its commanders publicly resigning or expressing support for the ICU.<ref name=":12" /> Two of the defeated warlords allegedly fled to an American naval vessel off the Somali coast according to witnesses in Mogadishu.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12" /> [[BBC News]] reported that the ICU had emerged as Somalia's strongest and most popular faction.{{Sfn|Massoud|2021|p=184}}

{{blockquote|The Union of Islamic Courts was established to ensure that [[Somalia|Somali]] people suffering for 15 years would gain peace and full justice and freedom from the [[Anarchy|anarchic]] rule of [[warlords]] who refuted their people to no direction.|An interview featured in the [[BBC Online]] Somali section in June 2006 with [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]]}}

The leaders of the ICU repeatedly professed that they intended to negotiate with the [[Transitional Federal Government of Somalia|Transitional Federal Government]] In [[Baidoa]] so that it could move into Mogadishu and reunite Somalia.<ref name=":19" /> Several days after the city came under ICU control, [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] spokesman [[Sean McCormack]] noted that goal of the union was to "...lay the foundations for some institutions in Somalia that might form the basis for a better and more peaceful, secure Somalia where the rule of law is important."<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 June 2006 |title=In Mogadishu, Prayers Amid Lull in Violence |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/in-mogadishu-prayers-amid-lull-in-violence |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=[[Fox News]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":23" /> In mid June, ICU leaders sent a cable to Washington stating that the courts had no interest in being enemies with the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=2006-06-14 |title=Mogadishu's new rulers reassure west |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/14/rorycarroll |access-date=2023-10-24 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Rule over Mogadishu and southern Somalia (June – December 2006) ==
Over the ensuing months, the eleven amalgamated Islamic Courts initiated a drive to establish stability in [[Mogadishu]] and the territories under its control.<ref name=":25">{{Cite news |date=19 June 2006 |title=Islamic Courts Take Politics In A New Direction |work=Emerging Markets Online |publisher=[[Business Monitor International]]}}</ref> This period of the [[Somali Civil War]], referred to as a 'Golden era' of Somali politics by top UN officials, saw the ICU undertake significant reformative and security measures.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gettleman |first=Jeffrey |date=2007-11-20 |title=As Somali Crisis Swells, Experts See a Void in Aid |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/20/world/africa/20somalia.html |access-date=2021-09-04 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":21" />
[[File:Reopening of Mosque of Islamic Solidarity in Mogadishu by Islamic Courts Union.jpg|thumb|Crowds gather for the reopening of the [[Mosque of Islamic Solidarity]] (Masjidka Isbahaysiga) in Mogadishu on 18 August 2006]]

=== Security and governance ===
In this time frame, the ICU revived sixteen previously defunct [[Police station|police stations]] in Mogadishu, deploying nearly 600 personnel and dozens of vehicles to fortify the nascent law enforcement framework.<ref name=":21" /> This resulted in a steep drop in banditry within days, as thieves avoided areas within reach of the court forces.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 June 2006 |title=Islamic courts lauded over improved security in Somali capital |work=[[Radio HornAfrik]] |publisher=BBC Worldwide Monitoring |agency=BBC Monitoring Africa}}</ref> Additionally, the city witnessed a ban on the open possession of firearms unless [[Gun registry|registered with a court]], and foreign visitors were publicly advised to provide two weeks' prior notice of their arrival for their security.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |date=31 Aug 2006 |title=Humanitarian situation in Somalia: Monthly analysis, Aug 2006 |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/humanitarian-situation-somalia-monthly-analysis-aug-2006 |access-date=2023-07-28 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en |agency=[[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]}}</ref> The courts also began issuing [[Travel visa|travel visas]], resulting in significant influx of investors and former refugees.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Axe |first=David |title=Somalia: Better Off under Islamic Courts? |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2007/09/somalia-better/ |access-date=2023-07-31 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> Another action that significantly increased the ICU's popularity was the restoration of proper ownership regarding land and homes that had been lost or stolen during the civil war.<ref name=":11" /> It was noted that as the courts were taking over the city many people simply left the homes they occupied before the rightful owners had even taken their cases to the specialized Sharia courts that were setup for property disputes.<ref name=":18" /> During this period the ICU also began to expand its authority by validating major transactions such as the purchase of vehicles or homes and overseeing marriages and divorces.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-06-06 |title=Profile: Somalia's Islamic Courts |language=en-GB |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5051588.stm |access-date=2023-03-06}}</ref>

The ICU created a [[coast guard]] and pirate activity completely ceased due to aggressive anti-piracy operations they conducted. According to courts officials, the organization was sending large contingents of troops into the central Somali regions to crack down on pirate operations based there. In one notable incident, ICU forces stormed a hijacked [[United Arab Emirates]] registered ship, and recaptured it after a battle with the pirates aboard the vessel.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maliti |first=Tom |date=17 Oct 2007 |title=Piracy Off Somalia's Coast Increases |url=https://www.hiiraan.com/comments2-news-2007-oct-piracy_off_somalia_s_coast_increases.aspx |access-date=7 Jun 2023 |website=www.hiiraan.com |publisher=[[Hiiraan Online]] |agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=2008-12-04 |title=Did U.S. action create Somali pirate haven? |url=https://www.deseret.com/2008/12/4/20289512/did-u-s-action-create-somali-pirate-haven |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=Deseret News |language=en}}</ref> Community reintegration programs were offered to former militiamen, and in an effort to restructure the security wing, formalized military and police training was introduced to the different court forces.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mueller |first=Jason C. |date=2018-01-02 |title=The Evolution of Political Violence: The Case of Somalia's Al-Shabaab |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213 |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=116–141 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213 |s2cid=148494845 |issn=0954-6553}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Osman |first=Ali |date=October 2006 |title=It is not too late to reverse the US Foreign Policy in Somalia |url=http://www.hiiraan.com/op4/2006/oct/218/it_is_not_too_late_to_reverse_the_us_foreign_policy_in_somalia.aspx |access-date=2023-12-14 |website=www.hiiraan.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Social and economic ===
By 19 June 2006, the ICU founded several clinics and schools in the city.<ref name=":25" /> Commenting on the state of education in the wake of the takeover, [[The Economist]] noted, "...school attendance is rising, particularly among girls." The courts also made strides towards patching together neighborhoods that had been divided by the civil war.<ref name=":28" /> The formation of a sanitation committee and the organization of a substantial clean-up campaign on 20 July 2006 resulted in the first clearing of war debris and rubbish from Mogadishu's streets in over a decade.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5198338.stm Ethiopian troops on Somali soil], ''BBC News'', 20 July 2006.</ref> This successful initiative was further expanded to regions surrounding the capital.<ref name=":21" /> In August 2006, the courts issued a directive imposing a ban on the export of rare birds and wildlife from Somalia. Simultaneously, a prohibition on [[Charcoal trafficking in Somalia|charcoal exports]] was enacted, driven by the alarming rate of [[deforestation]] occurring across the country due to the practice.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-08-23 |title=Islamic courts ban trade in charcoal and wildlife |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/60436/somalia-islamic-courts-ban-trade-charcoal-and-wildlife |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=[[The New Humanitarian]] |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Prof Addow.JPG|thumb|Prof. [[Ibrahim Hassan Addou]], (beside a logo used by the ICU) appointed head of the Foreign Affairs department for the union. He had previously worked as an administrator at the [[American University]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], before returning to Somalia in 1999. |203x203px]]During the ICU's brief control of southern Somalia, the organization made numerous declarations condemning [[discrimination]] against what the courts considered to be "oppressed clans" (e.g., [[Yibir]], [[Madhiban|Madhibaan]] and [[Somali Bantus|Jareer]]) as un-Islamic and [[haram]]. The courts deliberately orchestrated marriages between women from discriminated groups to men from larger Somali clans in order to challenge popular perceptions.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=40}} While many of the initial Mogadishu courts were linked to the [[Hawiye]] clan, the ICU took deliberate measures to ensure clan bias did not influence legal proceedings. This approach ultimately earned them a reputation for impartiality.<ref name=":25" />

The courts secured broad support from the Mogadishu business community by addressing issues such as theft and [[extortion]], creating a more favourable environment for trade.<ref name=":25" /> As they advanced through southern Somalia, the ICU eliminated all militia checkpoints on the '[[Baidoa]] Corridor,' a vital transport and trade route to Kenya. Under the courts' administration, transportation costs on the corridor plummeted by 50%. Traders involved in studies on the route hailed the period under ICU control as a 'golden era of overall land trade.'<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ali |first=Abdirahman |url=https://www.xcept-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Brokering-Trade-Routes_Final.pdf |title=BROKERING TRADE ROUTES: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHECKPOINTS ALONG THE BAIDOA CORRIDOR |date=31 October 2023 |publisher=RIFT VALLEY INSTITUTE |pages=12}}</ref> Additionally, the courts focused on enhancing traffic flow in Mogadishu, deploying personnel to regulate traffic and dismantle roadblocks at major roads and junctions. Consequently, the following weeks witnessed a noteworthy decline in the prices of goods.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rice |first=Xan |date=2006-06-26 |title=Mogadishu's miracle: peace in the world's most lawless city |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/26/mainsection.international11 |access-date=2023-10-25 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name=":28" /> [[Aden Adde International Airport|Mogadishu International Airport]], closed since the withdrawal of [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II|UNOSOM II]] forces in 1995, was reopened by the courts on July 15, 2006.<ref name="Somalinet">Mohamed Abdi Farah, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071018025325/http://www.somalinet.com/news/world/English/3290 Somalia: Reopening of Mogadishu's airport welcomed], ''[[SomaliNet]]'', July 15, 2006.</ref> On August 25, [[Port of Mogadishu|the historic seaport]], once one of the busiest in East Africa, was also reopened by the courts, marking a crucial step in revitalizing the region's economic infrastructure.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5279414.stm First ship arrives in Mogadishu], ''[[BBC]]'', August 25, 2006.</ref>
=== ICU offensive and Ethiopian military intervention ===
{{Main|2006 Islamic Courts Union offensive}}
[[File:2006 ICU.png|thumb|Advance of the Islamic Courts offensive]]With its newfound position of authority, the ICU seized on its popularity and began pushing deep into the regions surrounding the city for the first time. Their offensive capability was greatly aided by new weaponry it had captured from the warlords – most of which had been bought with U.S. funds.<ref name=":4" /> During the summer of 2006, the ICU was allegedly being given support by [[Eritrea]], [[Djibouti]], [[Iran]], [[Libya]], [[Egypt]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Syria]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=U.N. Report Ties Somali Islamists to Hezbollah |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2006/11/15/6493083/u-n-report-ties-somali-islamists-to-hezbollah |access-date=2022-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Egypt 'trained' deposed' UIC fighters, Djibouti provided uniforms – WikiLeaks |url=http://www.hiiraan.com/news4/2015/oct/102162/egypt_trained_deposed_uic_fighters_djibouti_provided_uniforms__wikileaks.aspx |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=www.hiiraan.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

On 16 June 2006, [[Shabelle Media Network|Shabeelle Media Network]] reported that sources in Ethiopia's [[Somali Region]] had witnessed a massing of [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|ENDF]] 'heavy armoured vehicles' along all the border towns on the [[Ethiopia–Somalia border|Ethiopian–Somali border]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 June 2006 |title=Ethiopian troops massed along border with Somalia |work=[[Shabelle Media Network]] |publisher=BBC Worldwide Monitoring |agency=BBC Monitoring Africa}}</ref>

==== First deployment of Ethiopian forces ====
On 17 June, local Somali officials and residents in [[Gedo]] region reported about 50 Ethiopian armored vehicles had passed through the border town of [[Dolow]] and pushed 50&nbsp;km inland near the town of [[Luuq]].<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":16" /> Although the Ethiopian government denied claims of ENDF forces crossing the border, residents in towns within Somalia reported encounters with Ethiopian troops inquiring whether the ICU had reached the area.<ref name=":24">{{Cite news |date=19 June 2006 |title=Ethiopia accused of trying to destroy Islamic rule in Somalia |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]]}}</ref>

ICU head [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed|Sheik Sharif Sheik Ahmed]] claimed that 300 Ethiopian troops had entered the country through the border town of [[Dolow]] in [[Gedo|Gedo region]] that morning in support of the TFG, and that Ethiopian forces had also been probing Somali border towns. He would go on to threaten to fight Ethiopian troops if they continued intervening and further stated, “We want the whole world to know what’s going on. The United States is encouraging Ethiopia to take over the area. Ethiopia has crossed our borders and are heading for us.”''<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ethiopian troops enter Somalia – Islamic leader |work=Sudan Tribune |url=https://sudantribune.com/article16755/}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |title=Border war feared as Somali Islamists vow holy war against Ethiopia - Somalia {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/border-war-feared-somali-islamists-vow-holy-war-against-ethiopia |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=reliefweb.int |date=18 June 2006 |language=en}}</ref>'' Sharif stated that the courts had no intention of attacking Ethiopia, but claimed that Ethiopian forces had 'brought war' by beginning an incursion into Somalia.<ref name=":24" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pflanz |first=Mike |date=19 June 2006 |title=Ethiopia accused of invasion |pages=17 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> The Ethiopian government would deny the deployment of its forces in Somalia and countered that the ICU was marching towards its borders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia denies crossing into Somalia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/6/17/ethiopia-denies-crossing-into-somalia |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":13" /> The TFG denied accusations of an Ethiopian military deployment counter claiming that ICU was fabricating a pretext to assault its capital in [[Baidoa]].<ref name=":14" />

On June 24, [[Hassan Dahir Aweys]] was named head of the ICUs newly formed 88 member parliament, the Council of the Islamic Courts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-07-01 |title=Militant leader emerges in Somalia - Africa & Middle East - International Herald Tribune |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/25/news/somalia.php |access-date=2022-04-13 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060701224844/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/06/25/news/somalia.php |archive-date=1 July 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Several days later Aweys stated in an interview with [[Agence France-Presse|Agence France Presse]], "We are ready for partnership with the Americans. We would like to work with them if they respect us and stop interfering with Somali internal affairs,"<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2006 |title=Hardline Somali Islamists extend olive branch to Washington, demand respect |work=[[Agence France Presse]]}}</ref>

== Khartoum ICU/TFG talks ==
The TFG, overshadowed by the achievements of the ICU, was in dire need of the popularity and military capacity of the courts and the ICU in turn was in need of [[Diplomatic recognition|international recognition]], along with the political and administrative skills required to run a government that the TFG possessed. The obvious deficiencies of both organizations led many to perceive a possible complimentary ICU/TFG amalgamation.<ref name=":11" /> [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] of the United Nations, [[Kofi Annan|Koffi Annan]], urged the ICU and TFG to unite and form a government in order to attain a lasting peace in Somalia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 June 2006 |title=Annan urges Somali Islamists, government to unite |work=[[Shabelle Media Network]] |publisher=BBC Worldwide Monitoring |agency=BBC Monitoring Africa}}</ref>

In late June, the UN formally created a contact group to directly communicate with the Islamic Courts. The [[Associated Press]] reported that the development reflected a growing realization within the UN that the ICU was the first serious governing body to appear since the collapse of the Somali state in 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-06-19 |title=U.N. team to meet Somalia's Islamic group |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna13426268 |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>

=== First Khartoum meeting (June 2006) ===
The [[Arab League]] arranged a conference between the ICU and TFG in June 2006 to discuss merger proposals in [[Khartoum]], Sudan. The talk initially began positively but rapidly collapsed over the issue of Ethiopian forces deployed to Somalia at the request of the TFG. The ICU insisted that the presence of Ethiopian forces was the priority and should be dealt with first, while the TFG insisted that an agreement on a unified government had to be made before removing the Ethiopian presence. Neither side was willing to compromise on the issue of Ethiopian troops, leading to the collapse of the talks. On 22 June 2006 a communique was issued announcing that both parties recognized each other's legitimacy and that neither would engage in hostile propaganda against the other.<ref name=":11" />

Both parties agreed to renew talks and meet again on 17 July 2006.<ref name=":11" /> During the talks another significant deployment of Ethiopian troops occurred on July 20, 2006, when they moved into Somalia. Local witnesses reported 20 to 25 armored vehicles crossing the border. The Ethiopian government once again denied the presence of any troops inside Somalia. [[Reuters]] estimated that roughly 5,000 [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|ENDF]] troops had built up inside Somalia by this point.<ref name="PBS2006">{{cite news |date=July 20, 2006 |title=Ethiopian Troops Enter Somalia to Resist Islamic Militia |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa/july-dec06/somalia_07-20.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119011529/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa/july-dec06/somalia_07-20.html |archive-date=January 19, 2014 |access-date=2007-01-05 |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Two days later, another contingent of Ethiopian troops crossed into Somalia, leading to the collapse of the Khartoum peace talks between the ICU and TFG. Approximately 200 ENDF troops seized [[Wajid, Somalia|Wajid]], taking control of the airport. Following the deployment at Wajid, the ICU walked out of talks with the TFG. [[Abdirahman Janaqow]], the deputy leader of the ICU executive council, stated soon after that, "The Somali government has violated the accord and allowed Ethiopian troops to enter Somali soil." The TFG claimed that no Ethiopians were in Somalia and that only their troops were in Wajid. Soon after, residents reported two military helicopters landing at the town's airstrip.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hassan |first=Mohamed Olad |date=23 July 2006 |title=Ethiopian troops enter second Somali town |url=https://www.ocala.com/story/news/2006/07/23/ethiopian-troops-enter-second-somali-town/64279021007/ |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=The Star Banner |language=en-US |agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref> [[BBC News]] confirmed reports of Ethiopian troops in Wajid during interviews with local residents and aid workers. Following the towns seizure, the ICU pledged to wage a holy war to drive out ENDF forces in Somalia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-07-22 |title=Ethiopians enter new Somali town |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5205634.stm |access-date=2023-12-13 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Second Khartoum meeting (September 2006) ===
The TFG was alarmed by the rapid territorial expansion of the ICU and feared that it was attempting to encircle its capital in Baidoa. Neither party was willing to go to continue the Khartoum conference. The TFG insisted that the ICU withdraw to the territory it had occupied during the June conference, while the ICU demanded the withdrawal of Ethiopian military contingents in Somalia before discussions resumed. The two primary mediators, the [[Arab League]] and the [[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD) were both viewed as biased by the ICU and TFG. The ICU accused the IGAD of being partial to the TFG, while the TFG accused the Arab League of complicity with the ICU.<ref name=":11" />

The ICU continued to gain territory around Baidoa and lacking any troops of its own the TFG requested foreign support. On 20 July 2006, Ethiopia deployed hundreds of troops to Baidoa. This prompted an immediate warning from [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed|Sheik Sharif Sheik Ahmed]] that the organization would invoke a jihad against Ethiopian forces if they did not withdraw.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopian troops enter central Somalia |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna12035106 |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=NBC News |date=20 July 2006 |language=en}}</ref> Numerous Somali witnesses and a BBC correspondent reported seeing Ethiopian Army trucks and hundreds of soldiers crossing the border and entering Baidoa.<ref name=":17">{{Cite news |last=Gettleman |first=Jeffrey |date=22 July 2006 |title=Somali Says Ethiopian Presence Is Just the Uniforms |work=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/22/world/africa/somali-says-ethiopian-presence-is-just-the-uniforms.html?smid=url-share}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-07-20 |title=Ethiopian troops on Somali soil |language=en-GB |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/5198338.stm |access-date=2022-11-13}}</ref> The TFG publicly denied the existence of Ethiopian forces in Baidoa and argued the claims were ICU propaganda. TFG minister of information [[Mohamed Abdi Hayir|Mohammed Abdi Hayir]], claimed that sightings of Ethiopian forces in Somalia were a result of confused identity as Ethiopia had merely provided 4,000 uniforms to TFG forces. Ethiopian minister of information, Berhan Hailu announced soon after the deployment, “We will use all means at our disposal to crush the Islamist group if they attempt to attack Baidoa, the seat of the Transitional Federal Government.”''<ref name=":12" />''<ref name=":17" />

Eventually talks did resume, but in September instead of July 2006. Negotiations quickly broke down over the issues of Ethiopian forces and ICU expansion. According to former Somali diplomat and writer [[Ismail Ali Ismail]], the failure of the second Khartoum talks stemmed from incompetent mediation, as he argues that the roadblock could have been resolved if the mediators had suggested and pushed for a simultaneous withdrawal of both ICU and Ethiopian forces under international supervision.<ref name=":11" />

=== Baidoa Bombing and capture of Kismayo ===
On 18 September 2006, the first suicide bombing in Somali history occurred in the TFG capital of [[Baidoa]], when a truck loaded with explosives attempted to assassinate President Abdullahi Yusuf. The ICU denied responsibility for the assassination attempt, instead pinning the blame on Ethiopian provocateurs.<ref name=":11" /> TFG Foreign Minister [[Ismail Mahmud Hurre|Ismail Hurre]] stated that whoever was responsible for the attack had wanted the ICU/TFG talks slated for 30 September 2006 to fail.<ref name=":32">{{Cite news |date=2006-09-18 |title=Somali leader survives bomb blast |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5356126.stm |access-date=2023-11-13}}</ref> Eventually the TFG, which had blamed previous attacks on warlords, for the first time accused radical elements within the ICU of the attack.<ref name=":11" /> 10 days before the attack, Baidoa warlord [[Muhammad Ibrahim Habsade|Mohamed Ibrahim Habsade]] told BBC News that his militia would eject the TFG by force if they did not withdraw from the city.<ref name=":32" /> According to Professor Robert Pape of the [[University of Chicago]], the decision to invite Ethiopian troops to invade Somalia created an ideal trigger for extremists to carry out Somalia's first ever suicide attack, as the deployment of foreign troops loyal to the Christian-dominated government in Ethiopia was viewed by the majority of ordinary Somali citizens as a threat to the nations sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suicide Bombings Increase in Somalia |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2009-06-24-voa47-68646787/408074.html |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=VOA |date=2 November 2009 |language=en}}</ref>

On 25 September the ICU seized the strategic port city of [[Kismayo]], which the TFG claimed breached the ceasefire deal signed between the two parties in [[Khartoum]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamists take main Somali port city |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/9/25/islamists-take-main-somali-port-city |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Criticism and allegations ==
Despite its significant achievements, the ICU would attract criticism for many of its actions.

Extremist elements in ICU, who viewed the TFG as an Ethiopian puppet, reportedly engaged in assassinations of TFG personnel.<ref name=":11" /> A United Nations monitoring group claimed the courts had sent 700 troops to fight alongside [[Hezbollah]] during the [[2006 Lebanon War]], though this claim has been held in question by many observers and analysts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kelemen |first=Michele |date=15 November 2006 |title=U.N. Report Ties Somali Islamists to Hezbollah |url=https://www.npr.org/2006/11/15/6493083/u-n-report-ties-somali-islamists-to-hezbollah |website=[[NPR]]}}</ref>

Somalia's only popular drug, [[Khat]], was outright banned. During the civil war many Somalis had relied the selling and distribution of the drug as one of their sole sources of income and consequently the ban had serious repercussions on people's ability to afford basic necessities. Charcoal exports were banned, on account of the industry devastating Somalia's fragile environment. Once again many Somalis had relied on the practice to make ends meet.<ref name=":9" /> Many Somali citizens had criticized the early Islamic courts for handing punishments out to petty criminals far more frequently than powerful gangsters and warlords.{{Sfn|Elmi|2010|p=65}}

There was serious ideological friction between the ‘moderate’ wing of the Islamic Courts led by the Chairman of the Islamic Courts’ "Executive Council", Sheikh Sharif, and the "radical" wing led by the Chairman of the Courts’ [[Shura]] (Consultative or Legislative Council), Sheikh Aweys. These ideological divisions became clear when various wings of the Islamic Courts started making policies and statements without reference to the collective leadership. Many of them – mostly "radically" conservative social policies – were not popular among the wider population.<ref name="Cedric Barnes and Harun Hassan, 2007" />

The ICU was accused of enacting extremist policies such as banning television, shutting down cinemas and preventing women from working. A [[Congressional Research Service]] report on Somalia investigating the allegations found no evidence to support to the assertion that women had ever been banned from working by the Islamic Courts. It was further revealed in interviews with local residents and courts officials that there had been some prohibitions on watching soccer games on television late at night, but merely due to disturbances and fighting. Cinemas had also been restricted, though only in the mornings at the direct request of Mogadishu parents who were frustrated with the issue of children skipping school to see films.<ref name=":20" />

== Ethiopian invasion ==
{{Main|Somalia War (2006-2009)|l1 = Ethiopian invasion and occupation of Somalia}}Before the full scale invasion began, more than 10,000 [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|ENDF]] forces had been built up in and around [[Baidoa]] over the months since the first incursion in June 2006.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Samatar |first=Abdi Ismail |date=2007 |title=Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia, US Warlordism & AU Shame |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20406369 |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=34 |issue=111 |pages=155–165 |jstor=20406369 |issn=0305-6244}}</ref>

The first clash between ICU and ENDF forces occurred on 9 October 2006. TFG forces, backed by the Ethiopian troops, attacked the ICU positions at the town of [[Burhakaba]], forcing the courts to retreat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yusuf |first=Aweys Osman |date=9 October 2006 |title=Somalia: Ethiopian Troops Capture Burhakaba 180 Km Away From the Capital |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200610090116.html |website=[[AllAfrica]]}}</ref> [[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] reported that residents in Baidoa had witnessed a large column of at least 72 armed ENDF vehicles and troops transports depart from city.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 October 2006 |title=Somali incursion provokes war fear |work=[[Agence France-Presse ]]}}</ref> The ICU claimed that the ENDF had also sent another large deployment across the Somali border. Following the battle, [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]] announced "This is clear aggression...Our forces will face them soon if they do not retreat from Somali territories" and declared [[Jihad]] against Ethiopian military forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2006 |title=Ethiopia 'helps seize Somali town' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/10/10/ethiopia-helps-seize-somali-town |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Meles Zenawi|Meles Zenawis]] government denied that ENDF troops were in Somalia, but local residents in Burhakaba confirmed their presence. [[The Economist]] reported that the Ethiopian military incursion had set off a fierce reaction even among the most moderate of the ICU, and a recruitment mobilization began in order to raise a force to take back Burhakaba.<ref name=":28" />

On 29 November 2006, the courts claimed Ethiopian forces had shelled [[Banderadley|Bandiradley]]. The next day ICU forces ambushed an ENDF convoy outside of [[Baidoa]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-11-30 |title=Islamists 'ambush' Ethiopia truck |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6159059.stm |access-date=2023-10-25}}</ref>

=== Invasion ===
In late December 2006, approximately 50,000 Ethiopian troops backed by tanks, [[Mil Mi-24|Mi-24]] helicopter gunships and [[Sukhoi Su-27|Su-27s]] launch a full scale invasion into Somalia to topple the ICU and install the TFG. Alongside these troops, the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush Administration]] covertly deployed [[United States Army Special Forces|US Special Forces]] backed by [[Lockheed AC-130|AC-130]] gunships in support of [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|ENDF]] forces. The lightly armed court forces were unable to counter ENDF/US [[air supremacy]] and armour. The timing and scale of the attack surprised many international observers, leading many to conclude that it was 'fairly obvious that Ethiopia had received significant help' during the invasion.<ref name=":27">{{Cite magazine |last=Axe |first=David |title=WikiLeaked Cable Confirms U.S.' Secret Somalia Op |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/12/wikileaked-cable-confirms-u-s-secret-somalia-op/ |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |access-date=2023-06-21}}</ref> [[Reuters]] reported American and British Special Forces, along with US-hired [[Mercenary|mercenaries]], had been laying the ground work for the invasion within and outside Somalia since late 2005. During the invasion the United States provided satellite surveillance of ICU forces to the ENDF, along with extensive military and [[Military logistics|logistical support]] extending to the provision of spare parts. The [[European Union]] was reportedly 'exceptionally unhappy' about the heavy US support for the invasion, and held back funds for the newly created [[African Union Mission to Somalia|AMISOM]] mission for several months.<ref name=":26" />

To avoid turning Mogadishu into a war zone once again, the ICU withdrew from the city on December 26, 2006.<ref name="Stanford University">{{cite web|url=https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/islamic-courts-union#_ftnref11|title=Islamic Courts Union|publisher=Standford University}}</ref>

The top leaders of the Islamic Courts Union, including [[Hassan Aweys|Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys]], Sheikh [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]] and Sheikh [[Abdirahman Janaqow]], resigned the next day.<ref name="Stanford University" /> On January 1, 2007, the ICU abandoned its last urban stronghold in the city of [[Kismayo]], far south of Mogadishu and the remaining leadership fled to [[Eritrea]].<ref name=":9" />

=== Post–ICU rule ===
{{See also|Fall of Mogadishu|Battle of Mogadishu (March–April 2007)|Battle of Mogadishu (November 2007)}}
In the last days of December 2006, Ethiopian and TFG troops entered Mogadishu. Following the Ethiopian invasion and subsequent occupation, Somalia once again began slipping into a state of chaos. Between 2007 and 2008 approximately two-thirds of Mogadishu's residents were forced to flee the growing violence in the city, and Somalia began to experience one of the worst humanitarian crises in its history.<ref name=":9" /> The Islamic Courts Union had actively fought [[piracy|pirate activity]] on the [[Somalia|Somali]] coast, and consequently piracy thrived in their wake.<ref name=":8">[http://www.hiiraan.com/comments2-news-2007-oct-piracy_off_somalia_s_coast_increases.aspx Hiiraan.com], ''[[Associated Press]]'', October 17, 2007"</ref>

{{blockquote|Under the Courts, there was literally no piracy.|Hans Tino Hansen, CEO of Risk Intelligence, a Danish maritime security consultant<ref name=":7" />}}

== Insurgency ==
Despite the general collapse of the organization in early 2007, members of the Islamic Courts Union regrouped and continued fighting against the Ethiopian occupation during 2007 and 2008. By November 2008, ICU insurgents controlled the cities of [[Jowhar]] and [[Beledweyne]].<ref name=":0" /> These regions operated independently of [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]] and the two groups came into contention. Al-Shabaab spokesman [[Mukhtar Robow]] publicly denied conflict between the two groups and claimed that although there had been past differences, both factions cooperated on the grounds opposing an [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|Ethiopian military]] presence.<ref name="ICG-2008">{{Cite book |url=https://icg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/147-somalia-to-move-beyond-the-failed-state.pdf |title=Somalia: To Move Beyond the Failed State |publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |publication-date=23 December 2008}}</ref><ref name=":30">{{Cite news |date=22 April 2008 |title=Al-Shabab official denies dispute with Somalia's Islamic Courts |work=Jowharnews.com |publisher=[[World News Connection]]}}</ref> In January 2009, fighters who claimed loyalty to Islamic Courts Union engaged in a large military confrontation in [[Balad, Somalia|Balad]], [[Middle Shabelle|Middle Shabeelle]], against Al-Shabaab resulting in several deaths. [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]] put out a statement announcing that it was 'saddened' by the hostilities.<ref name=":31">{{Cite news |date=12 January 2009 |title=Somali Al-Shabab 'saddened' by fighting with Union of Islamic Courts |work=[[Shabelle Media Network]]}}</ref>

In the wake of the ICU's disintegration, fringe Islamic groups began empowering themselves as Somalis from many walks of life rallied against the Ethiopian invasion and violence greatly escalated over the following years.<ref name=":27" /> [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]], an obscure organization at this point, gained immense popularity as a resistance group fighting against the Ethiopians. Consequently, much of Somalia south of Mogadishu became Al Shabaab ruled territory.<ref name=":9" />

=== Creation of the ARS party and merger with TFG ===
{{Main|Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia}}
In September 2007 the successor to the Islamic Courts Union, the [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia|Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia]] (ARS), was founded by numerous high ranking ICU officials who had south refuge in Eritrea. [[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed|Sheikh Sharif Ahmed]] was elected head of the organization and promptly declared war on Ethiopian forces. The ARS further announced its refusal to hold talks with the TFG until an Ethiopian withdrawal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 14, 2007 |title=Islamist to lead Somali opposition alliance |url=https://sudantribune.com/article23971/}}</ref>

In June 2008 the ARS and TFG signed a peace accord agreeing to the cessation of all hostilities between the two parties. Though successful, the talks were once again threatened by the issue of Ethiopian military forces deployed in Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} Somalia: "Alliance" divided over Djibouti peace accord |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/484f855bc.html |access-date=2023-03-01 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[African Union Mission to Somalia]]
*[[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==

=== Books ===
* {{Cite book |last=Elmi |first=Afyare Abdi |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingsom0000elmi |title=Understanding the Somalia Conflagration: Identity, Political Islam and Peacebuilding |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=9780745329741}}
* {{Cite book |last=Massoud |first=Mark Fathi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTorEAAAQBAJ |title=Shari'a, Inshallah: Finding God in Somali Legal Politics |date=2021 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press ]] |isbn=9781108965989 |doi=10.1017/9781108965989}}

=== Papers ===
* {{Cite journal |last=Cocodia |first=Jude |date=2021 |title=Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026 |journal=African Security |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages= 110–131|doi= 10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026|issn= |jstor= |s2cid=236350899 |via=[[Taylor & Francis]]}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Samatar |first=Abdi Ismail |author-link=Abdi Ismail Samatar |date=March 2007 |title=Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia, US Warlordism & AU Shame |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20406369 |journal=[[Review of African Political Economy]] |volume=34 |issue=111 |pages=115–165 |jstor=20406369 |via=[[JSTOR]]}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Factions in the Somali Civil War]]
[[Category:Islamic organizations in Africa|Islamic Courts of Somalia]]
[[Category:Law of Somalia]]
[[Category:1990s establishments in Somalia|Islamic Courts of Somalia]]
[[Category:Islam in Somalia]]
[[Category:Islamic courts and tribunals]]

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