Content that violates any copyrights will be deleted. Encyclopedic content must be verifiable through citations to reliable sources.
You are about to undo an edit. Please check the comparison below to verify that this is what you want to do, then publish the changes below to finish undoing the edit. If you are undoing an edit that is not vandalism, explain the reason in the edit summary. Do not use the default message only. |
| Latest revision | Your text | ||
| Line 29: | Line 29: | ||
Story opposed [[Jacksonian democracy]], saying it was "oppression" of property rights by republican governments when popular majorities began in the 1830s to restrict and erode the property rights of the minority of rich men.<ref>David Brion Davis, ''Antebellum American culture'' (1997), pp. 14–15</ref> R. Kent Newmyer presents Story as a "Statesman of the Old Republic" who tried to be above democratic politics and to shape the law in accordance with the republicanism of [[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[John Marshall]], and the New England [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]] of the 1820s and 1830s, including [[Daniel Webster]].<ref>Newmyer, p. 4</ref> Historians generally agree that Story reshaped American law—as much or more than Marshall or anyone else—in a conservative direction that protected property rights.<ref>Presser, p. 526</ref> |
Story opposed [[Jacksonian democracy]], saying it was "oppression" of property rights by republican governments when popular majorities began in the 1830s to restrict and erode the property rights of the minority of rich men.<ref>David Brion Davis, ''Antebellum American culture'' (1997), pp. 14–15</ref> R. Kent Newmyer presents Story as a "Statesman of the Old Republic" who tried to be above democratic politics and to shape the law in accordance with the republicanism of [[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[John Marshall]], and the New England [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]] of the 1820s and 1830s, including [[Daniel Webster]].<ref>Newmyer, p. 4</ref> Historians generally agree that Story reshaped American law—as much or more than Marshall or anyone else—in a conservative direction that protected property rights.<ref>Presser, p. 526</ref> |
||
He was portrayed by retired justice [[Harry Blackmun]] in the film ''[[Amistad (film)|Amistad]]'' |
He was portrayed by retired justice [[Harry Blackmun]] in the film ''[[Amistad (film)|Amistad]]'' reading the case the film was based on ''United States v. The Amistad''.<ref>{{Citation|title=Amistad (1997) – IMDb|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118607/fullcredits|access-date=February 12, 2022}}</ref> |
||
==Early life== |
==Early life== |
||
| Line 55: | Line 55: | ||
One of Story's more vexing opinions was ''[[Prigg v. Pennsylvania]]'', in which he wrote for the majority in 1842. Story was forced to consider the constitutionality of a Pennsylvania personal liberty law which placed procedural requirements on those seeking to extradite fugitive slaves. Story, despite his hatred of slavery, sided with the southern justices to declare the Pennsylvania law unconstitutional. This appears especially hard to square with Story's anti-slavery philosophy, as one of the individuals kidnapped by Edward Prigg, the slave catcher in question, was actually not a slave at all. However, despite the outcome appearing entirely in favor of the South, a more accurate assessment can be gleaned from the text and time period. Concerning the former, Story argued that fugitive slaves were addressed in the U.S. Constitution, Art. 4, § 2. Despite the fact that slavery was not mentioned, Story concluded that it was all too clear that the clause was meant to secure runaway slaves for southern slaveholders. He went on to note, "The full recognition of the right and title was indispensable to the security of this species of property in all the slaveholding States; and, indeed, was so vital to the preservation of their domestic interests and institutions, that it cannot be doubted that it constituted a fundamental article, without the adoption of which the Union could not have been formed."<ref>''Prigg v. Pennsylvania'', 41 U.S. 539 (1842) 35.</ref> Story's apparent endorsement of slaveholders' rights must be read through this light: that the justice felt that this was a bargain integral to the Constitution. Consequently, Story had an obligation to honor the deal struck at the Constitutional Convention. Further insight is provided by the political activity of southerners of the day. H. Robert Baker notes, "Story chose the path that he believed best supported a strong Union and rejected the natural right of slaveholders to the people they claimed as property. His resonating opinion answered southern constitutional claims in ways that protected slaveholders' rights, but not on the terms they wanted."<ref>H. Robert Baker, "A Better Story in Prigg v. Pennsylvania?," ''Journal of Supreme Court History'' Vol. 39 (2014) 186.</ref> |
One of Story's more vexing opinions was ''[[Prigg v. Pennsylvania]]'', in which he wrote for the majority in 1842. Story was forced to consider the constitutionality of a Pennsylvania personal liberty law which placed procedural requirements on those seeking to extradite fugitive slaves. Story, despite his hatred of slavery, sided with the southern justices to declare the Pennsylvania law unconstitutional. This appears especially hard to square with Story's anti-slavery philosophy, as one of the individuals kidnapped by Edward Prigg, the slave catcher in question, was actually not a slave at all. However, despite the outcome appearing entirely in favor of the South, a more accurate assessment can be gleaned from the text and time period. Concerning the former, Story argued that fugitive slaves were addressed in the U.S. Constitution, Art. 4, § 2. Despite the fact that slavery was not mentioned, Story concluded that it was all too clear that the clause was meant to secure runaway slaves for southern slaveholders. He went on to note, "The full recognition of the right and title was indispensable to the security of this species of property in all the slaveholding States; and, indeed, was so vital to the preservation of their domestic interests and institutions, that it cannot be doubted that it constituted a fundamental article, without the adoption of which the Union could not have been formed."<ref>''Prigg v. Pennsylvania'', 41 U.S. 539 (1842) 35.</ref> Story's apparent endorsement of slaveholders' rights must be read through this light: that the justice felt that this was a bargain integral to the Constitution. Consequently, Story had an obligation to honor the deal struck at the Constitutional Convention. Further insight is provided by the political activity of southerners of the day. H. Robert Baker notes, "Story chose the path that he believed best supported a strong Union and rejected the natural right of slaveholders to the people they claimed as property. His resonating opinion answered southern constitutional claims in ways that protected slaveholders' rights, but not on the terms they wanted."<ref>H. Robert Baker, "A Better Story in Prigg v. Pennsylvania?," ''Journal of Supreme Court History'' Vol. 39 (2014) 186.</ref> |
||
Though still embroiled in his struggle with Roger Taney, Story achieved his last great victory in ''[[Swift v. Tyson]]''. This 1842 case concerned a bill of exchange, essentially a promise of payment, given from a businessman in New York, in exchange for land in Maine. However, the individuals who received the bill of exchange, Jarius Keith and Nathaniel Norton, did not own the land in question. The central issue of the case focused on Article 34 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 which established that the Court was to employ state statutes as authoritative rules when they were applicable for the Court's cases. Story, ever the nationalist, had long despised using state statutes as authoritative when he deemed federal common law a much more preferable alternative. Simply put, Story longed to place more power in the hands of judges, in particular federal judges, instead of local legislatures. Though Story, writing for the unanimous majority, rejected the fraudulent Bill of Exchange, this remains less significant than his development of federal common law. As aforementioned, section 34 of the Federal Judiciary Act of 1789 held that courts were bound to local state statutes. Story, though had long desired to establish federal common law, had been unable to sway sufficient support to the cause. In ''Swift'' he finally rallied sufficient support to chip away at the barrier. He noted that "[Section 34 of the Judiciary Act], upon its true intendment and construction, is strictly limited to local statutes and local usages of the character before stated, and does not extend to contracts and other instruments of a commercial nature..."<ref>Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. 1, 19 (1842).</ref> ''Swift's'' ultimate overruling in ''[[Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins]]'' marked a turning point in American civil procedure.<ref>Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938).</ref> |
Though still embroiled in his struggle with Roger Taney, Story achieved his last great victory in ''[[Swift v. Tyson]]''. This 1842 case concerned a bill of exchange, essentially a promise of payment, given from a businessman in New York, in exchange for land in Maine. However, the individuals who received the bill of exchange, Jarius Keith and Nathaniel Norton, did not own the land in question. The central issue of the case focused on Article 34 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 which established that the Court was to employ state statutes as authoritative rules when they were applicable for the Court's cases. Story, ever the nationalist, had long despised using state statutes as authoritative when he deemed federal common law a much more preferable alternative. Simply put, Story longed to place more power in the hands of judges, in particular federal judges, instead of local legislatures. Though Story, writing for the unanimous majority, rejected the fraudulent Bill of Exchange, this remains less significant than his development of federal common law. As aforementioned, section 34 of the Federal Judiciary Act of 1789 held that courts were bound to local state statutes. Story, though had long desired to establish federal common law, had been unable to sway sufficient support to the cause. In ''Swift'' he finally rallied sufficient support to chip away at the barrier. He noted that "[Section 34 of the Judiciary Act], upon its true intendment and construction, is strictly limited to local statutes and local usages of the character before stated, and does not extend to contracts and other instruments of a commercial nature..."<ref>Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. 1, 19 (1842).</ref> ''Swift's'' ultimate overruling in ''[[Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins]]'' marked a turning point in American civil procedure.<ref>Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938).</ref> |
||
In 1829, he moved from Salem to Cambridge and became the first Dane Professor of Law at [[Harvard University]], meeting with remarkable success as a teacher and winning the affection of his students, who had the benefit of learning from a sitting Supreme Court justice. He was a prolific writer, publishing many reviews and magazine articles, delivering orations on public occasions, and publishing books on legal subjects which won high praise on both sides of the Atlantic. Among Story's works of this period, one of the most important is the Justice's ''Commentaries on the Constitution''. The commentaries are divided into three sections, the first two concerning the colonial origins of the confederation and revolution, and the final section concerns the origins of the Constitution. Story's ''Commentaries'' encapsulate and expound his ideology. Within his ''Commentaries'', Story, in particular, attacks notions of state sovereignty. Even at this moment when his time on the Court was drawing towards a close, Story remained concerned with the welfare of the Union. His guide to the Constitution stressed the sovereignty of the people rather than the states, and extensively attacked those elements, ''i.e.'', southern sovereignty advocates, that Story felt could destabilize the Union. Story's ''Commentaries'' summarize much of the Justice's philosophy and demonstrate how Story sought to use his work off the bench to continue to foster popular sovereignty over state sovereignty.<ref name="R. Kent Newmeyer 1985">R. Kent Newmeyer, ''Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985)</ref> |
In 1829, he moved from Salem to Cambridge and became the first Dane Professor of Law at [[Harvard University]], meeting with remarkable success as a teacher and winning the affection of his students, who had the benefit of learning from a sitting Supreme Court justice. He was a prolific writer, publishing many reviews and magazine articles, delivering orations on public occasions, and publishing books on legal subjects which won high praise on both sides of the Atlantic. Among Story's works of this period, one of the most important is the Justice's ''Commentaries on the Constitution''. The commentaries are divided into three sections, the first two concerning the colonial origins of the confederation and revolution, and the final section concerns the origins of the Constitution. Story's ''Commentaries'' encapsulate and expound his ideology. Within his ''Commentaries'', Story, in particular, attacks notions of state sovereignty. Even at this moment when his time on the Court was drawing towards a close, Story remained concerned with the welfare of the Union. His guide to the Constitution stressed the sovereignty of the people rather than the states, and extensively attacked those elements, ''i.e.'', southern sovereignty advocates, that Story felt could destabilize the Union. Story's ''Commentaries'' summarize much of the Justice's philosophy and demonstrate how Story sought to use his work off the bench to continue to foster popular sovereignty over state sovereignty.<ref name="R. Kent Newmeyer 1985">R. Kent Newmeyer, ''Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic'' (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985)</ref> |
||
| Line 133: | Line 133: | ||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
*[[List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States]] |
* [[List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States]] |
||
*[[Bibliography of the United States Constitution]] |
* [[Bibliography of the United States Constitution]] |
||
==Notes== |
==Notes== |
||
| Line 140: | Line 140: | ||
==References== |
==References== |
||
*{{FJC Bio|2302|nid=1388386|name=Joseph Story<!--(1779–1845)-->}} |
* {{FJC Bio|2302|nid=1388386|name=Joseph Story<!--(1779–1845)-->}} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Dunne |first=Gerald T. |year=1970 |title=Justice Joseph Story and the Rise of the Supreme Court |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=0671206656 |url=https://archive.org/details/justicejosephsto00dunn }} |
* {{cite book |last=Dunne |first=Gerald T. |year=1970 |title=Justice Joseph Story and the Rise of the Supreme Court |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=0671206656 |url=https://archive.org/details/justicejosephsto00dunn }} |
||
*{{cite book |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=Leon |editor2-last=Israel |editor2-first=Fred L. |title=The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions |publisher=[[Chelsea House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=0-7910-1377-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/justicesofunited0000unse }} |
* {{cite book |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=Leon |editor2-last=Israel |editor2-first=Fred L. |title=The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions |publisher=[[Chelsea House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=0-7910-1377-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/justicesofunited0000unse }} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Newmyer |first=R. Kent |year=1985 |title=Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic |url=https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust0000newm |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |isbn=0807841641}} |
* {{cite book |last=Newmyer |first=R. Kent |year=1985 |title=Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story: Statesman of the Old Republic |url=https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust0000newm |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |isbn=0807841641}} |
||
*{{Cite journal |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |title=Review: Resurrecting the Conservative Tradition in American Legal History |journal=Reviews in American History |volume=13 |issue=4 |jstor=2702583 |pages=526–533 |year=1985|doi=10.2307/2702583 }} |
* {{Cite journal |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |title=Review: Resurrecting the Conservative Tradition in American Legal History |journal=Reviews in American History |volume=13 |issue=4 |jstor=2702583 |pages=526–533 |year=1985|doi=10.2307/2702583 }} |
||
*Kutler, Stanley, Privilege and Creative Destruction: The Charles River Bridge Case (Philadelphia: Lippincott Company, 1990) |
* Kutler, Stanley, Privilege and Creative Destruction: The Charles River Bridge Case (Philadelphia: Lippincott Company, 1990) |
||
*United States v. Libellants and Claimants of the Schooner Amistad, 40 U.S. 518 (1841). |
* United States v. Libellants and Claimants of the Schooner Amistad, 40 U.S. 518 (1841). |
||
*Hall, Kermit L., and Timothy S. Huebner, Major Problems in American Constitutional History (Boston: Wadsworth Learning Center, 2010) |
* Hall, Kermit L., and Timothy S. Huebner, Major Problems in American Constitutional History (Boston: Wadsworth Learning Center, 2010) |
||
*Baker, H. Robert, "A Better Story in Prigg v. Pennsylvania?," Journal of Supreme Court History Vol. 39 (2014) |
* Baker, H. Robert, "A Better Story in Prigg v. Pennsylvania?," Journal of Supreme Court History Vol. 39 (2014) |
||
*Newmyer, R. Kent, The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney (Wheelling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson Company, 2006) |
* Newmyer, R. Kent, The Supreme Court under Marshall and Taney (Wheelling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson Company, 2006) |
||
==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
||
*{{cite book |last=Story |first=William |title=Life and Letters of Joseph Story |publisher=The Lawbook Exchange |year=2001 |location=New Jersey |isbn=1584770716}} |
* {{cite book |last=Story |first=William |title=Life and Letters of Joseph Story |publisher=The Lawbook Exchange |year=2001 |location=New Jersey |isbn=1584770716}} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Abraham |first=Henry J. |title=Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court |url=https://archive.org/details/justicespresiden0000abra |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1992 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-506557-3}} |
* {{cite book |last=Abraham |first=Henry J. |title=Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court |url=https://archive.org/details/justicespresiden0000abra |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1992 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-506557-3}} |
||
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Story, Joseph}} |
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Story, Joseph}} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Cushman |first=Clare |title=The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 |edition=2nd |publisher=([[Supreme Court Historical Society]], [[Congressional Quarterly]] Books) |year=2001 |isbn=1-56802-126-7}} |
* {{cite book |last=Cushman |first=Clare |title=The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 |edition=2nd |publisher=([[Supreme Court Historical Society]], [[Congressional Quarterly]] Books) |year=2001 |isbn=1-56802-126-7}} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Finkelman |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Finkelman | title=Supreme Injustice: Slavery in the Nation's Highest Court |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9780674051218}} [https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Book-Review-pdf-1.pdf Review] |
* {{cite book |last=Finkelman |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Finkelman | title=Supreme Injustice: Slavery in the Nation's Highest Court |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9780674051218}} [https://www.fedbar.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Book-Review-pdf-1.pdf Review] |
||
*{{cite book |editor-last=Hall |editor-first=Kermit L. |editor-link=Kermit L. Hall |title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1992 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-505835-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall }} |
* {{cite book |editor-last=Hall |editor-first=Kermit L. |editor-link=Kermit L. Hall |title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1992 |location=New York |isbn=0-19-505835-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall }} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Fenton S. |author2=Goehlert, Robert U. |title=The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography |publisher=Congressional Quarterly Books |year=1990 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-87187-554-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/ussupremecourtbi0000mart }} |
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Fenton S. |author2=Goehlert, Robert U. |title=The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography |publisher=Congressional Quarterly Books |year=1990 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-87187-554-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/ussupremecourtbi0000mart }} |
||
*{{cite book |last=McClellan |first=James |year=1971 |title=Joseph Story and the American Constitution; a Study in Political and Legal Thought, with Selected Writings |url=https://archive.org/details/josephstoryameri0000mccl |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |isbn=0806122900}} |
* {{cite book |last=McClellan |first=James |year=1971 |title=Joseph Story and the American Constitution; a Study in Political and Legal Thought, with Selected Writings |url=https://archive.org/details/josephstoryameri0000mccl |url-access=registration |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |isbn=0806122900}} |
||
*{{cite book |last=Urofsky |first=Melvin I. |author-link=Melvin I. Urofsky |title=The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary |publisher=[[Garland Publishing]] |year=1994 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv/page/590 590] |isbn=0-8153-1176-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv/page/590 }} |
* {{cite book |last=Urofsky |first=Melvin I. |author-link=Melvin I. Urofsky |title=The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary |publisher=[[Garland Publishing]] |year=1994 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv/page/590 590] |isbn=0-8153-1176-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv/page/590 }} |
||
==External links== |
==External links== |
||
| Line 166: | Line 166: | ||
{{wikisource author}} |
{{wikisource author}} |
||
{{Commons category|Joseph Story}} |
{{Commons category|Joseph Story}} |
||
*[https://www.courtlistener.com/?type=o&q=author_id%3A3118] Links to all opinions written by Joseph Story on the US Supreme Court, from www.courtlistener.com |
* [https://www.courtlistener.com/?type=o&q=author_id%3A3118] Links to all opinions written by Joseph Story on the US Supreme Court, from www.courtlistener.com |
||
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090221015211/http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/justices/story.htm Ariens, Michael, The Supreme Court, Joseph Story.] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090221015211/http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/justices/story.htm Ariens, Michael, The Supreme Court, Joseph Story.] |
||
*''Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States First Edition'' on Google Books: [https://archive.org/details/commentariesonc16storgoog Volume I], [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VZQPBIhVPsMC Volume II] and [https://archive.org/details/commentariesonc18storgoog Volume III] |
* ''Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States First Edition'' on Google Books: [https://archive.org/details/commentariesonc16storgoog Volume I], [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VZQPBIhVPsMC Volume II] and [https://archive.org/details/commentariesonc18storgoog Volume III] |
||
*[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/personality/robes_story.html Fox, John, ''Capitalism and Conflict, Biographies of the Robes, Joseph Story.''] [[Public Broadcasting Service]]. |
* [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/personality/robes_story.html Fox, John, ''Capitalism and Conflict, Biographies of the Robes, Joseph Story.''] [[Public Broadcasting Service]]. |
||
*{{Biographical Directory of Congress|S000978|noid=y|inline=y}} |
* {{Biographical Directory of Congress|S000978|noid=y|inline=y}} |
||
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090501182126/http://199.236.69.88/02_history/subs_timeline/images_associates/014.html History of the Court, Joseph Story], [[Supreme Court Historical Society]]. |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090501182126/http://199.236.69.88/02_history/subs_timeline/images_associates/014.html History of the Court, Joseph Story], [[Supreme Court Historical Society]]. |
||
*[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-1387sto The Joseph Story papers] [[William L. Clements Library]]. |
* [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-1387sto The Joseph Story papers] [[William L. Clements Library]]. |
||
*[http://library.law.harvard.edu/suites/story/index.php Harvard Law School Library: Joseph Story Digital Suite] |
* [http://library.law.harvard.edu/suites/story/index.php Harvard Law School Library: Joseph Story Digital Suite] |
||
{{s-start}} |
{{s-start}} |
||
Copy and paste: – — ° ′ ″ ≈ ≠ ≤ ≥ ± − × ÷ ← → · § Cite your sources: <ref></ref>
{{}} {{{}}} | [] [[]] [[Category:]] #REDIRECT [[]] <s></s> <sup></sup> <sub></sub> <code></code> <pre></pre> <blockquote></blockquote> <ref></ref> <ref name="" /> {{Reflist}} <references /> <includeonly></includeonly> <noinclude></noinclude> {{DEFAULTSORT:}} <nowiki></nowiki> <!-- --> <span class="plainlinks"></span>
Symbols: ~ | ¡ ¿ † ‡ ↔ ↑ ↓ • ¶ # ∞ ‹› «» ¤ ₳ ฿ ₵ ¢ ₡ ₢ $ ₫ ₯ € ₠ ₣ ƒ ₴ ₭ ₤ ℳ ₥ ₦ № ₧ ₰ £ ៛ ₨ ₪ ৳ ₮ ₩ ¥ ♠ ♣ ♥ ♦ 𝄫 ♭ ♮ ♯ 𝄪 © ® ™
Latin: A a Á á À à  â Ä ä Ǎ ǎ Ă ă Ā ā à ã Å å Ą ą Æ æ Ǣ ǣ B b C c Ć ć Ċ ċ Ĉ ĉ Č č Ç ç D d Ď ď Đ đ Ḍ ḍ Ð ð E e É é È è Ė ė Ê ê Ë ë Ě ě Ĕ ĕ Ē ē Ẽ ẽ Ę ę Ẹ ẹ Ɛ ɛ Ǝ ǝ Ə ə F f G g Ġ ġ Ĝ ĝ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ H h Ĥ ĥ Ħ ħ Ḥ ḥ I i İ ı Í í Ì ì Î î Ï ï Ǐ ǐ Ĭ ĭ Ī ī Ĩ ĩ Į į Ị ị J j Ĵ ĵ K k Ķ ķ L l Ĺ ĺ Ŀ ŀ Ľ ľ Ļ ļ Ł ł Ḷ ḷ Ḹ ḹ M m Ṃ ṃ N n Ń ń Ň ň Ñ ñ Ņ ņ Ṇ ṇ Ŋ ŋ O o Ó ó Ò ò Ô ô Ö ö Ǒ ǒ Ŏ ŏ Ō ō Õ õ Ǫ ǫ Ọ ọ Ő ő Ø ø Œ œ Ɔ ɔ P p Q q R r Ŕ ŕ Ř ř Ŗ ŗ Ṛ ṛ Ṝ ṝ S s Ś ś Ŝ ŝ Š š Ş ş Ș ș Ṣ ṣ ß T t Ť ť Ţ ţ Ț ț Ṭ ṭ Þ þ U u Ú ú Ù ù Û û Ü ü Ǔ ǔ Ŭ ŭ Ū ū Ũ ũ Ů ů Ų ų Ụ ụ Ű ű Ǘ ǘ Ǜ ǜ Ǚ ǚ Ǖ ǖ V v W w Ŵ ŵ X x Y y Ý ý Ŷ ŷ Ÿ ÿ Ỹ ỹ Ȳ ȳ Z z Ź ź Ż ż Ž ž ß Ð ð Þ þ Ŋ ŋ Ə ə
Greek: Ά ά Έ έ Ή ή Ί ί Ό ό Ύ ύ Ώ ώ Α α Β β Γ γ Δ δ Ε ε Ζ ζ Η η Θ θ Ι ι Κ κ Λ λ Μ μ Ν ν Ξ ξ Ο ο Π π Ρ ρ Σ σ ς Τ τ Υ υ Φ φ Χ χ Ψ ψ Ω ω {{Polytonic|}}
Cyrillic: А а Б б В в Г г Ґ ґ Ѓ ѓ Д д Ђ ђ Е е Ё ё Є є Ж ж З з Ѕ ѕ И и І і Ї ї Й й Ј ј К к Ќ ќ Л л Љ љ М м Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Т т Ћ ћ У у Ў ў Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Џ џ Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я ́
IPA: t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ ɟ ɡ ɢ ʡ ʔ ɸ β θ ð ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ ʜ ʢ ɦ ɱ ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ ʋ ɹ ɻ ɰ ʙ ⱱ ʀ ɾ ɽ ɫ ɬ ɮ ɺ ɭ ʎ ʟ ɥ ʍ ɧ ʼ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ ɨ ʉ ɯ ɪ ʏ ʊ ø ɘ ɵ ɤ ə ɚ ɛ œ ɜ ɝ ɞ ʌ ɔ æ ɐ ɶ ɑ ɒ ʰ ʱ ʷ ʲ ˠ ˤ ⁿ ˡ ˈ ˌ ː ˑ ̪ {{IPA|}}
Wikidata entities used in this page
Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help):
This page is a member of 35 hidden categories (help):
