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Editing Ocean color

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{{broader|Ocean optics|Color of water}}
{{for|the music band|Ocean Colour Scene}}
{{short description|Explanation of the color of oceans and ocean color remote sensing}}
<noinclude>{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
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| image1 = Blue ocean wave (Unsplash).jpg
| image2 = Pilatus2006 picture 043.jpg
| image3 = Baltic blooms ESA21514635.jpeg
| image4 = Bahamas MODIS.jpg
| image5 = Greens and blues of the ocean color from NASA satellite data. Original from NASA. Digitally enhanced by rawpixel. - 45638539034.jpg
| image6 = NASA satellite view of Southern Ocean phytoplankton bloom.jpg
| footer = Clockwise from top left: deep blue water, blue-green water, satellite image of the [[Bahamas]] where sunlight reflects off sand and reefs in the shallows, satellite image of phytoplankton bloom in the [[Southern Ocean]], satellite image of the [[Pribilof Islands]] showing shades of color from different phytoplankton, and satellite image of the [[Baltic Sea]] with [[phytoplankton]] blooms.
}}</noinclude>
'''Ocean color''' is the branch of [[ocean optics]] that specifically studies the color of the water and information that can be gained from looking at variations in color. The color of the [[ocean]], while mainly blue, actually varies from blue to green or even yellow, brown or red in some cases.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fleming |first1=Nic |title=Is the sea really blue? |url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/201505226-is-the-sea-really-blue |website=BBC - Earth |access-date=21 August 2021 |date=2015}}</ref> This field of study developed alongside [[water remote sensing]], so it is focused mainly on how color is measured by instruments (like the sensors on satellites and airplanes).

Most of the ocean is blue in color, but in some places the ocean is blue-green, green, or even yellow to brown.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fleming |first1=Nic |title=Is the sea really blue? |url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/201505226-is-the-sea-really-blue#:~:text=The%20variation%20in%20sea%20colour,to%20both%20physics%20and%20biology.&text=Pure%20water%20is%20of%20course,floor%2C%20it%20appears%20dark%20blue. |website=BBC - Earth |publisher=BBC |access-date=25 August 2021 |date=27 May 2015}}</ref> Blue ocean color is a result of several factors. First, water preferentially absorbs red light, which means that blue light remains and is reflected back out of the water. Red light is most easily absorbed and thus does not reach great depths, usually to less than 50 meters (164&nbsp;ft). Blue light, in comparison, can penetrate up to 200 meters (656&nbsp;ft).<ref>{{Citation|last=Webb|first=Paul|title=6.5 Light|date=July 2020|url=https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/6-5-light/|work=Introduction to Oceanography|language=en|access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> Second, water molecules and very tiny particles in ocean water preferentially scatter blue light more than light of other colors. Blue light scattering by water and tiny particles happens even in the very clearest ocean water,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morel |first1=Andre |last2=Prieur |first2=Louis |title=Analysis of variations in ocean color 1 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=1977 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=709–722 |doi=10.4319/lo.1977.22.4.0709|bibcode=1977LimOc..22..709M |doi-access=free }}</ref> and is similar to [[Diffuse sky radiation|blue light scattering in the sky]].

The main substances that affect the color of the ocean include [[Colored dissolved organic matter|dissolved organic matter]], living [[phytoplankton]] with [[chlorophyll]] pigments, and non-living particles like [[marine snow]] and mineral [[sediments]].<ref name="Coble">{{cite journal|last=Coble|first=Paula G.|date=2007|title=Marine Optical Biogeochemistry: The Chemistry of Ocean Color|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=107|issue=2|pages=402–418|doi=10.1021/cr050350+|pmid=17256912}}</ref> Chlorophyll can be measured by [[satellite]] observations and serves as a proxy for ocean productivity ([[Marine primary production|marine primary productivity]]) in surface waters. In long term composite satellite images, regions with high ocean productivity show up in yellow and green colors because they contain more (green) [[phytoplankton]], whereas areas of low productivity show up in blue.

== Overview ==
Ocean color depends on how light interacts with the materials in the water. When light enters water, it can either be [[absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorbed]] (light gets used up, the water gets "darker"),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis |last2=Roesler |first2=Collin |title=Absorption Overview. Ocean Optics Web Book |date=2020 |url=https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/view/absorption/absorption-overview}}</ref> [[scattering|scattered]] (light gets bounced around in different directions, the water remains "bright"),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis |last2=Boss |first2=Emmanuel |title=Scattering Overview. Ocean Optics Web Book |date=2020 |url=https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/view/scattering/scattering-overview}}</ref> or a combination of both. How underwater absorption and scattering vary spectrally, or across the spectrum of [[Visible light|visible]] to [[Infrared radiation|infrared]] light energy (about 400&nbsp;nm to 2000&nbsp;nm wavelengths) determines what "color" the water will appear to a sensor.

==Water types by color==
Most of the world’s oceans appear blue because the light leaving water is brightest (has the highest reflectance value) in the blue part of the visible light spectrum. Nearer to land, coastal waters often appear green. Green waters appear this way because algae and dissolved substances are absorbing light in the blue and red portions of the spectrum.

===Blue oceans===
[[File:Blue ocean wave (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|A deep blue colored wave viewed from the water surface near Encinitas, California, United States. The [[Pacific Ocean]] contains some of the most deep blue colored waters in the world.]]
The reason that open-ocean waters appear blue is that they are very clear, somewhat similar to pure water, and have few materials present or very tiny particles only. Pure water absorbs red light with depth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pope |first1=Robin M. |last2=Fry |first2=Edward S. |title=Absorption spectrum (380-700 nm) of pure water. II. Integrating cavity measurements |journal=Applied Optics |date=1997 |volume=36 |issue=33 |pages=8710–8723 |doi=10.1364/AO.36.008710|pmid=18264420 |bibcode=1997ApOpt..36.8710P |s2cid=11061625 }}</ref> As red light is absorbed, blue light remains. Large quantities of pure water appear blue (even in a white-bottom swimming pool or white-painted bucket<ref>{{cite web |title=Water Color |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-color?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |website=Overview |publisher=USGS |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref>). The substances that are present in blue-colored open ocean waters are often very tiny particles which scatter light, scattering light especially strongly in the blue wavelengths.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morel |first1=Andre |last2=Prieur |first2=Louis |title=Analysis of variations in ocean color |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=1977 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=709–722 |doi=10.4319/lo.1977.22.4.0709|bibcode=1977LimOc..22..709M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Light scattering in blue water is similar to the scattering in the atmosphere which makes the sky appear blue (called [[Rayleigh scattering]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mishchenko |first1=Michael I |last2=Travis |first2=Larry D |last3=Lacis |first3=Andrew A |title=Scattering, Absorption, and Emission of Light by Small Particles |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK}}</ref> Some blue-colored clear water lakes appear blue for these same reasons, like [[Lake Tahoe]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Raymond C. |last2=Tyler |first2=John E. |last3=Goldman |first3=Charles R. |title=Optical properties and color of Lake Tahoe and Crater Lake |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=1973 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=189–199 |doi=10.4319/lo.1973.18.2.0189|bibcode=1973LimOc..18..189S }}</ref>

===Green oceans===
Microscopic marine algae, called [[phytoplankton]], absorb light in the blue and red wavelengths, due to their specific pigments like [[chlorophyll-a]]. Accordingly, with more and more phytoplankton in the water, the color of the water shifts toward the green part of the spectrum.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morel |first1=Andre |last2=Prieur |first2=Louis |title=Analysis of variations in ocean color |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=1977 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=709–722 |doi=10.4319/lo.1977.22.4.0709|bibcode=1977LimOc..22..709M |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vaillancourt |first1=Robert D. |last2=Brown |first2=Christopher W. |last3=Guillard |first3=Robert R. L. |last4=Balch |first4=William M. |title=Light backscattering properties of marine phytoplankton: relationships to cell size, chemical composition and taxonomy |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |date=2004 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=191–212 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbh012|doi-access= }}</ref>

The most widespread light-absorbing substance in the oceans is chlorophyll pigment, which phytoplankton use to produce carbon by [[photosynthesis]]. Chlorophyll, a green pigment, makes phytoplankton preferentially absorb the red and blue portions of the light spectrum . As blue and red light are absorbed, green light remains. Ocean regions with high concentrations of phytoplankton have shades of blue-to-green water depending on the amount and type of the phytoplankton.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bidigare |first1=Robert R. |last2=Ondrusek |first2=Michael E. |last3=Morrow |first3=John H. |last4=Kiefer |first4=Dale A. |editor1-first=Richard W |editor1-last=Spinrad |title=In-vivo absorption properties of algal pigments |journal=Proceedings of SPIE |series=Ocean Optics X |date=1990 |volume=1302 |page=290 |doi=10.1117/12.21451|bibcode=1990SPIE.1302..290B |s2cid=94186696 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vandermeulen |first1=Ryan A. |last2=Mannino |first2=Antonio |last3=Craig |first3=Susanne E. |last4=Werdell |first4=P. Jeremy |title=150 shades of green: Using the full spectrum of remote sensing reflectance to elucidate color shifts in the ocean |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |date=2020 |volume=247 |page=111900 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2020.111900|bibcode=2020RSEnv.24711900V |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Green waters can also have a combination of phytoplankton, dissolved substances, and sediments, while still appearing green. This often happens in estuaries, coastal waters, and inland waters, which are called "optically complex" waters because multiple different substances are creating the green color seen by the sensor.
{|style="margin: 0 auto;"
| 
| [[File:It S Ireland The Water S Green (43244744).jpeg|thumb|upright=1.62|A surfer cuts through a green colored wave of ocean water at [[Strandhill|Strandhill, Ireland]].]]
|}

===Yellow to brown oceans===
[[File:Negro-Amazon confluence and Manaus (Brazil) from space (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Sentinel-2 satellite image of the confluence of the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]] and the [[Solimões River]], Brazil. The Rio Negro in the upper left part of the image is dark due to high concentrations of [[colored dissolved organic matter|colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM)]]. The Solimões River in the lower and right part of the image is brighter because of large amounts of [[sediments]].]]
Ocean water appears yellow or brown when large amounts of [[Colored dissolved organic matter|dissolved substances]], [[sediments]], or both types of material are present.

Water can appear yellow or brown due to large amounts of dissolved substances.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kirk |first1=John T. O. |title=Light and Photosynthesis in Aquatic Ecosystems |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hawes |first1=Stephen K. |title=Quantum fluorescence efficiencies of marine fulvic and humic acids |date=1992 |publisher=University of South Florida |location=Thesis}}</ref> Dissolved matter or ''gelbstoff'' (meaning yellow substance) appears dark yet relatively transparent, much like tea. Dissolved substances absorb blue light more strongly than light of other colors. [[Colored dissolved organic matter]] (CDOM) often comes from decaying plant matter on land or in [[marsh]]es, or in the open ocean from marine phytoplankton exuding dissolved substances from their cells.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fondriest Environmental, Inc. |title=Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter |url=https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/chromophoric-dissolved-organic-matter/ |website=Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements |access-date=22 August 2021 |date=1 August 2017}}</ref>

In coastal areas, runoff from rivers and resuspension of sand and silt from the bottom add sediments to surface waters. More sediments can make the waters appear more green, yellow, or brown because sediment particles scatter light energy at all colors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Babin |first1=M. |last2=Morel |first2=A. |last3=Fournier-Sicre |first3=V. |last4=Fell |first4=F. |last5=Stramski |first5=D. |title=Light scattering properties of marine particles in coastal and open ocean waters as related to the particle mass concentration |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |date=2003 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=843–859 |doi=10.4319/lo.2003.48.2.0843|bibcode=2003LimOc..48..843B |s2cid=13621264 |doi-access= }}</ref> In large amounts, mineral particles like sediment cause the water to turn brownish if there is a massive sediment loading event,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aurin |first1=D. A. |last2=Mannino |first2=A. |last3=Franz |first3=B. |title=Spatially resolving ocean color and sediment dispersion in river plumes, coastal systems, and continental shelf waters |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |date=2013 |volume=137 |pages=212–225 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2013.06.018|bibcode=2013RSEnv.137..212A |hdl=2060/20140010389 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> appearing bright and opaque (not transparent), much like chocolate milk.
{|style="margin: 0 auto;"
|[[File:Lake Boomanjin water.jpg|thumb|upright=0.68|In [[Lake Boomanjin]], Australia, the waters are strongly colored due to [[tannins]] from nearby trees.]]
|[[File:Louisiana tmo 2018063.jpg|thumb|upright=1.65|MODIS satellite image of the [[Mississippi River]] sediment plume in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] following a series of rainstorms in February 2018 (image from March 4, 2018).]]
|}

===Red oceans===
{{See also|Red tide}}
[[File:La-Jolla-Red-Tide.780.jpg|thumb|[[Red tide]] off the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Pier, La Jolla, California, United States.]]
Ocean water can appear red if there is a bloom of a specific kind of phytoplankton causing a discoloration of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ocean colour & algae |url=https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Space_for_our_climate/Ocean_colour_algae_blooms |website=The European Space Agency |publisher=ESA |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref> These events are called "[[Red tide|Red tides]]." However, not all red tides are harmful, and they are only considered harmful algal blooms if the type of plankton involved contains hazardous toxins.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is a red tide? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/redtide.html |website=Ocean Facts |publisher=National Ocean Service, NOAA |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref> The red color comes from the pigments in the specific kinds of phytoplankton causing the bloom. Some examples are ''Karenia brevis'' in the Gulf of Mexico,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magaña |first1=Hugo A. |last2=Conteras |first2=Cindy |last3=Villareal |first3=Tracy A. |title=A historical assessment of Karenia brevis in the western Gulf of Mexico Author links open overlay panel |journal=Harmful Algae |date=2003 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=163–171 |doi=10.1016/S1568-9883(03)00026-X}}</ref> ''Alexandrium fundyense'' in the Gulf of Maine,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Townsend |first1=David W. |last2=Pettigrew |first2=Neal R. |last3=Thomas |first3=Andrew C. |title=On the nature of Alexandrium fundyense blooms in the Gulf of Maine |journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography |date=2005 |volume=52 |issue=19–21 |pages=2603–2630 |doi=10.1016/j.dsr2.2005.06.028|bibcode=2005DSRII..52.2603T }}</ref> ''Margalefadinium polykroides'' and ''Alexandrium monilatum'' in the Chesapeake Bay,<ref>{{cite web |title=HAB Species |url=https://www.vims.edu/bayinfo/habs/guide/index.php |publisher=Virginia Institute of Marine Science |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref> and ''Mesodinium rubrum'' in Long Island Sound.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dierssen |first1=Heidi |last2=McManus |first2=George B. |last3=Chlus |first3=Adam |last4=Qiu |first4=Dajun |last5=Gao |first5=Bo-Cai |last6=Lin |first6=Senjie |title=Space station image captures a red tide ciliate bloom at high spectral and spatial resolution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2015 |volume=112 |issue=48 |pages=14783–14787 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1512538112|pmid=26627232 |pmc=4672822 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214783D |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Ocean color remote sensing==
{{See also|Water remote sensing}}
Ocean color remote sensing is also referred to as ocean color [[radiometry]]. Remote sensors on satellites, airplanes, and drones measure the spectrum of light energy coming from the water surface. The sensors used to measure light energy coming from the water are called radiometers (or spectrometers or [[spectroradiometer]]s). Some radiometers are used in the field at earth’s surface on ships or directly in the water. Other radiometers are designed specifically for airplanes or earth-orbiting satellite missions. Using radiometers, scientists measure the amount of light energy coming from the water at all colors of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] from ultraviolet to near-infrared.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis |title=Geometrical Radiometry. Ocean Optics Web Book |url=https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/view/light-and-radiometry/geometrical-radiometry |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref> From this reflected spectrum of light energy, or the apparent "color," researchers derive other variables to understand the physics and biology of the oceans.

Ocean color measurements can be used to infer important information such as phytoplankton biomass or concentrations of other living and non-living material. The patterns of algal blooms from satellite over time, over large regions up to the scale of the global ocean, has been instrumental in characterizing variability of [[marine ecosystems]]. Ocean color data is a key tool for research into how marine ecosystems respond to climate change and anthropogenic perturbations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dutkiewicz |first1=Stephanie |last2=Hickman |first2=Anna E. |last3=Jahn |first3=Oliver |last4=Henson |first4=Stephanie |last5=Beaulieu |first5=Claudie |last6=Monier |first6=Erwan |title=Ocean colour signature of climate change |journal=Nature Communications |date=2019 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=578 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-08457-x|pmid=30718491 |pmc=6362115 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10..578D }}</ref>

One of the biggest challenges for ocean color remote sensing is [[atmospheric correction]], or removing the color signal of the atmospheric haze and clouds to focus on the color signal of the ocean water.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis |title=The Atmospheric Correction Problem. Ocean Optics Web Book |url=https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/view/atmospheric-correction/the-atmospheric-correction-problem |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref> The signal from the water itself is less than 10% of the total signal of light leaving Earth’s surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis D. |last2=Werdell |first2=P. Jeremy |last3=Franz |first3=Bryan |last4=Ahmad |first4=Ziauddin |last5=Bailey |first5=Sean |title=Atmospheric Correction for Satellite Ocean Color Radiometry. NASA/TM–2016-217551 |url=https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/technical/NASA-TM-2016-217551.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis D. |title=Light ant Water: Radiative Transfer in natural waters |date=2004}}</ref>

===History===
[[File:Ellen Weaver, Biologist (16654493741).jpg|thumb|Scientists including biologist Ellen Weaver helped to develop the first sensors to measure ocean productivity from above, beginning with airplane-mounted sensors.]]
People have written about the color of the ocean over many centuries, including ancient Greek poet [[Wine-dark sea (Homer)|Homer’s famous "wine-dark sea."]] Scientific measurements of the color of the ocean date back to the invention of the [[Secchi disk]] in Italy in the mid-1800s to study the [[water clarity|transparency and clarity]] of the sea.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pitarch |first1=Jamie |title=A Review of Secchi's Contribution to Marine Optics and the Foundation of Secchi Disk Science |journal=Oceanography |date=2020 |volume=33 |issue=3 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2020.301|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Secchi |first1=A. |last2=Cialdi |first2=C. A. |title=Sul moto ondoso del mare e sulle correnti de esso specialmente auqelle littorali |date=1866 |publisher=Cited ONI Translation A-655, p. 1. Hydrographic Office, 1955. |edition=2nd}}</ref>

Major accomplishments were made in the 1960s and 1970s leading up to modern ocean color remote sensing campaigns. [[Nils Jerlov|Nils Gunnar Jerlov]]’s book ''Optical Oceanography'', published in 1968,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jerlov |first1=Nils Gunnar |title=Optical Oceanography |date=1968 |publisher=Elsevier Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands}}</ref> was a starting point for many researchers in the next decades. In 1970, George Clarke published the first evidence that chlorophyll concentration could be estimated based on green versus blue light coming from the water, as measured from an airplane over [[George's Bank]].<ref name="Clarke">{{cite journal | last1=Clarke | first1=George L. | last2=Ewing | first2=Gifford C. | last3=Lorenzen | first3=Carl J. | title=Spectra of Backscattered Light from the Sea Obtained from Aircraft as a Measure of Chlorophyll Concentration | journal=Science | publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) | volume=167 | issue=3921 | date=20 February 1970 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.167.3921.1119 | pages=1119–1121| pmid=17829405 | bibcode=1970Sci...167.1119C | s2cid=41680167 }}</ref> In the 1970s, scientist Howard Gordon and his graduate student George Maul related imagery from the first Landsat mission to ocean color.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Howard R. |editor1-last=Alberotanza |editor1-first=L. |editor2-last=Gower |editor2-first=J. F. R. |title=Oceanography form Space |date=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789048186815 |chapter=Chapter 17: Some Reflections on Thirty-Five Years of Ocean Color Remote Sensing}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maul |first1=George A. |last2=Gordon |first2=Howard R. |title=On the Use of the Earth Resources Technology Satellite ( LANDSAT-1 ) in Optical Oceanography |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |date=1975 |volume=4 |pages=95–128 |doi=10.1016/0034-4257(75)90008-5|bibcode=1975RSEnv...4...95M }}</ref> Around the same time, a group of researchers, including John Arvesen, Dr. Ellen Weaver, and explorer [[Jacques Cousteau]], began developing sensors to measure ocean productivity beginning with an airborne sensor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macomber |first1=Frank |title=Cousteau, NASA seek ocean food |journal=Star-News |date=20 March 1973 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1454&dat=19730320&id=Nmo0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=8QkEAAAAIBAJ&pg=897,4493586&hl=en |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=McKinnon |first1=Mika |title=Here's How we Started Measuring the Oceans from Space |url=https://gizmodo.com/heres-how-we-started-measuring-the-oceans-from-space-1732204166 |website=Gizmodo |access-date=23 August 2021 |date=1 November 2015}}</ref>

Remote sensing of ocean color from space began in 1978 with the successful launch of NASA's [[Coastal Zone Color Scanner]] (CZCS) on the Nimbus-7 satellite. Despite the fact that CZCS was an experimental mission intended to last only one year as a proof of concept, the sensor continued to generate a valuable time-series of data over selected test sites until early 1986. Ten years passed before other sources of ocean color data became available with the launch of other sensors, and in particular the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view sensor ([[SeaWiFS]]) in 1997 on board the [[NASA]] SeaStar satellite.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mobley |first1=Curtis |title=Ocean Color. Ocean Optics Web Book. |url=https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/view/remote-sensing/ocean-color |access-date=23 August 2021 |date=27 May 2021}}</ref> Subsequent sensors have included NASA's [[Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]] (MODIS) on board the Aqua and Terra satellites, ESA's MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer ([[MERIS]]) onboard its environmental satellite [[Envisat]]. Several new ocean-colour sensors have recently been launched, including the Indian Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM-2) on-board [[ISRO]]'s [[Oceansat-2]] satellite and the Korean [[Geostationary Ocean Color Imager]] (GOCI), which is the first ocean colour sensor to be launched on a [[geostationary satellite]], and Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite ([[VIIRS]]) aboard NASA's Suomi NPP . More ocean colour sensors are planned over the next decade by various space agencies, including [[hyperspectral imaging]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dierssen |first1=Heidi M. |last2=Ackleson |first2=Stephen G. |last3=Joyce |first3=Karen E. |last4=Hestir |first4=Erin L. |last5=Castagna |first5=Alexandre |last6=Lavender |first6=Samantha |last7=McManus |first7=Margaret A. |title=Living up to the Hype of Hyperspectral Aquatic Remote Sensing: Science, Resources and Outlook |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |date=2021 |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2021.649528|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Applications===
Ocean Color Radiometry and its derived products are also seen as fundamental [[Essential Climate Variables]] as defined by the [[Global Climate Observing System]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Essential Variables |url=https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/backgrounders/essential-variables |website=Earthdata |access-date=23 August 2021 |date=20 August 2021}}</ref> Ocean color datasets provide the only global synoptic perspective of primary production in the oceans, giving insight into the role of the world's oceans in the global [[carbon cycle]]. Ocean color data helps researchers map information relevant to society, such as [[water quality]], hazards to human health like [[harmful algal blooms]], [[bathymetry]], and primary production and habitat types affecting commercially-important [[fisheries]].<ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Platt |editor1-first=Trevor |editor2-last=Hoepffner |editor2-first=Nicolas |editor3-last=Stuart |editor3-first=Venetia |editor4-last=Brown |editor4-first=Christopher |title=Why Ocean Colour? The Societal Benefits of Ocean Colour Technology. IOCCG Report Number 7 |journal=Reports and Monographs of the International Ocean-Colour Coordinating Group |date=2008 |url=https://www.ioccg.org/reports/report7.pdf |location=Dartmouth, Canada}}</ref>

====Chlorophyll as a proxy for phytoplankton====
[[File:Season-long composites of ocean chlorophyll (8161799575).jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Season-long composites of ocean [[chlorophyll]] concentrations. The purple and blue colors represent lower chlorophyll concentrations. The oranges and reds represent higher chlorophyll concentrations. These differences indicate areas with lesser or greater [[phytoplankton]] biomass.]]
[[File:Ocean Color from July 2002 to March 2017 – NASA Aqua satellite.webm|thumb|upright=1.6|Satellite-derived chlorophyll-a concentration (mg m−3) from July 2002 to March 2017. This visualization was derived using data from the [[Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]] (MODIS) onboard NASA’s [[Aqua satellite]]. [[Chlorophyll-a]] concentration is a proxy for [[phytoplankton]] abundance. Darker shades of green indicate more chlorophyll and more phytoplankton, while shades of blue indicate less chlorophyll and less phytoplankton.<ref name=NASA2016>[https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/30754 Ocean Color Time Series] ''NASA Hyperwall'', 17 March 2016. {{PD-notice}}</ref>]]

The most widely used piece of information from ocean color remote sensing is satellite-derived chlorophyll-a concentration. Researchers calculate satellite-derived chlorophyll-a concentration from space based on the central premise that the more phytoplankton is in the water, the greener it is.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chlorophyll a (chlor_a) |url=https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/atbd/chlor_a/ |website=NASA Ocean Color |publisher=Algorithm Descriptions. Ocean Biology Processing Group (OBPG) |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref>

Phytoplankton are microscopic algae, marine primary producers that turn sunlight into chemical energy that supports the ocean food web. Like plants on land, phytoplankton create oxygen for other life on Earth. Ocean color remote sensing ever since the launch of SeaWiFS in 1997 has allowed scientists to map phytoplankton – and thus model [[primary production]] - throughout the world’s oceans over many decades,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=David A. |display-authors=etal |title=Regional to global assessments of phytoplankton dynamics from the SeaWiFS mission |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |date=2013 |volume=135 |pages=77–91 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2013.03.025|bibcode=2013RSEnv.135...77S |hdl=20.500.11937/34412 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> marking a major advance in knowledge of the Earth system.

====Other applications====
[[File:Sediment off the Yucatan Peninsula.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Suspended sediments can be seen in satellite imagery following events when high winds cause waves to stir up the seafloor, like in this image of the western side of the [[Yucatan Peninsula]]. Darker brown colored water shows where [[sediments]] come from land via rivers, while lighter colored water shows where sediments come from the chalky [[calcium carbonate]] sands on the seafloor.]]
Beyond chlorophyll, a few examples of some of the ways that ocean color data are used include:

''Harmful algal blooms''

Researchers use ocean color data in conjunction with meteorological data and field sampling to forecast the development and movement of harmful algal blooms (commonly referred to as "red tides," although the two terms are not exactly the same). For example, MODIS data has been used to map ''Karenia brevis'' blooms in the Gulf of Mexico.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hu |first1=Chuanmin |last2=Cannizzaro |first2=Jennifer |last3=Carder |first3=Kendall L. |last4=Lee |first4=Zhongping |last5=Muller-Karger |first5=Frank E. |last6=Soto |first6=Inia |title=Case Study 7: Red Tide Detection in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico Using MODIS Imagery |url=https://www.ioccg.org/handbook/casestudy7_hu_etal.pdf |website=Handbook of Satellite Remote Sensing Image Interpretation: Marine Applications |publisher=IOCCG |access-date=23 August 2021 |pages=95–110 |date=2011}}</ref>

''Suspended sediments''

Researchers use ocean color data to map the extent of river plumes and document wind-driven resuspension of sediments from the seafloor. For example, after hurricanes [[Hurricane Katrina|Katrina]] and [[Hurricane Rita|Rita]] in the Gulf of Mexico, ocean color remote sensing was used to map the effects offshore.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lohrenz |first1=Stephen E. |last2=Cai |first2=Wei-Jun |last3=Chen |first3=Xiaogang |last4=Tuel |first4=Merritt |title=Satellite Assessment of Bio-Optical Properties of Northern Gulf of Mexico Coastal Waters Following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita |journal=Sensors |date=2008 |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=4135–415– |doi=10.3390/s8074135|pmid=27879927 |pmc=3697166 |bibcode=2008Senso...8.4135L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Sensors==
Sensors used to measure ocean color are instruments that measure light at multiple wavelengths (multispectral) or a continuous spectrum of colors (hyperspectral), usually [[spectroradiometer]]s or optical radiometers. Ocean color sensors can either be mounted on satellites or airplanes, or used at Earth’s surface.

===Satellite sensors===
The sensors below are earth-orbiting satellite sensors. The same sensor can be mounted on multiple satellites to give more coverage over time (aka higher temporal resolution). For example, the MODIS sensor is mounted on both Aqua and Terra satellites. Additionally, the VIIRS sensor is mounted on both Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (Suomi-NPP or SNPP) and Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS-1, now known as NOAA-20) satellites. 
* Coastal Zone Color Scanner ([[Coastal zone color scanner|CZCS]])
* Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor ([[SeaWiFS]]) on OrbView-2 (aka SeaStar)
* Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ([[MODIS]]) on Aqua and Terra satellites
* Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer ([[MERIS]])
* Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances ([[POLDER]])
* Geostationary Ocean Color Imager([[Geostationary Ocean Color Imager|GOCI]]) on the Communication, Ocean, and Meteorological (COMS) satellite
* Ocean Color Monitor (OCM) on [[Oceansat-2]]
* Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) on the Advanced Earth Observing Satellite ([[ADEOS I|ADEOS]])
* Multi Spectral Instrument (MSI) on [[Sentinel-2|Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B]]
* Ocean and Land Colour Instrument (OLCI) on [[Sentinel-3|Sentinel-3A and Sentinel-3B]]
* Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite ([[VIIRS]]) on Suomi-NPP (SNPP) and NOAA-20 (JPSS1) satellites
* Operational Land Imager ([[Operational Land Imager|OLI]]) on [[Landsat 8|Landsat-8]]
* Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean ([[Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean|HICO]]) on the [[International Space Station]]<ref>{{cite web |title=HICO |url=https://ioccg.org/sensor/hico/ |website=Ocean-Colour Sensors |publisher=IOCCG |access-date=23 August 2021 |date=2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=HICO |url=https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/hico/ |website=NASA Ocean Color |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref>
* Precursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicative ([[PRISMA (spacecraft)|PRISMA]])
* Hawkeye on the SeaHawk Cubesat<ref>{{cite web |title=SeaHawk/HawkEye |url=https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/hawkeye/#:~:text=The%20Hawkeye%20instrument%2C%20flown%20onboard,lakes%2C%20estuaries%20and%20land%20features. |publisher=NASA Ocean Color |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref>
* Ocean color instrument (OCI) and 2 polarimeters on the planned [[Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem]] satellite

===Airborne sensors===
The following sensors were designed to measure ocean color from airplanes for airborne remote sensing:
* Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer ([[Airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrometer|AVIRIS]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=AVIRIS - Airborne Visible / Infrared Imaging Spectrometer |url=https://aviris.jpl.nasa.gov/ |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=aviris.jpl.nasa.gov}}</ref>
* Airborne Ocean Color Imager (AOCI)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Drdla |first1=Katja |title=Airborne Ocean Color Imager |url=https://airbornescience.nasa.gov/instrument/AOCI |publisher=NASA Airborne Science |access-date=23 August 2021 |date=16 April 2020}}</ref>
* Portable Remote Imaging Spectrometer (PRISM) flown for the CORALS project on the Tempus Applied Solutions Gulfstream-IV (G-IV) aircraft<ref>{{cite web |title=CORAL-PRISM Browser |url=https://oceandata.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/coral_browser/ |website=CORAL EVS-2 PRISM Data |publisher=NASA Ocean Color |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=PRISM Website: Home |url=https://prism.jpl.nasa.gov/ |publisher=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=23 August 2021 |date=6 May 2021}}</ref>
* Headwall Hyperspectral Imaging System (HIS)
* Coastal Airborne In situ Radiometers (C-AIR) bio-optical radiometer package <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guild |first1=Liane S. |last2=Kudela |first2=Raphael M. |last3=Hooker |first3=Stanford B. |last4=Palacios |first4=Sherry L. |last5=Housekeeper |first5=Henry F. |title=Airborne Radiometry for Calibration, Validation, and Research in Oceanic, Coastal, and Inland Waters |journal=Frontiers in Environmental Science |date=2020 |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fenvs.2020.585529|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager ([[Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager|CASI]])<ref>{{Citation |last1=Harding |first1=L.W. |title=Aircraft Remote Sensing |date=2001 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123744739004252 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences |pages=138–146 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-012374473-9.00425-2 |isbn=978-0-12-374473-9 |access-date=2022-03-30 |last2=Miller |first2=W.D. |last3=Swift |first3=R.N. |last4=Wright |first4=C.W.}}</ref>

===In situ sensors===
[[File:Melt Pond Optics (7348328794).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A researcher uses a [[spectroradiometer]] to measure the light energy radiating from an [[Melt pond|ice melt pond]] in the [[Chukchi Sea]] in summer 2011.]]
At Earth’s surface, such as on [[research vessels]], in the water using [[buoys]], or on piers and towers, ocean color sensors take measurements that are then used to calibrate and validate satellite sensor data. Calibration and validation are two types of "[[Ground truth|ground-truthing]]" that are done independently. Calibration is the tuning of raw data from the sensor to match known values, such as the brightness of the moon or a known reflection value at Earth’s surface. Calibration, done throughout the lifetime of any sensor, is especially critical to the early part of any satellite mission when the sensor is developed, launched, and beginning its first raw data collection. Validation is the independent comparison of measurements made [[in situ]] with measurements made from a satellite or airborne sensor.<ref>{{cite journal |editor1-last=Mueller |editor1-first=James L. |editor2-last=Fargion |editor2-first=Giulietta S. |editor3-last=McClain |editor3-first=Charles R. |title=Ocean Optics Protocols For Satellite Ocean Color Sensor Validation, Revision 4, Volume III: Radiometric Measurements and Data Analysis Protocols. NASA/TM-2003-21621/Rev-Vol III |date=2003 |url=https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/technical/protocols_ver4_voliii.pdf |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland}}</ref> Satellite calibration and validation maintain the quality of ocean color satellite data.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=Sean W. |last2=Werdell |first2=P. Jeremy |title=A multi-sensor approach for the on-orbit validation of ocean color satellite data products |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |date=2006 |volume=102 |issue=1–2 |pages=12–23 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2006.01.015|bibcode=2006RSEnv.102...12B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Werdell |first1=P. Jeremy |display-authors=etal |title=Unique data repository facilitates ocean color satellite validation |journal=Eos |date=2003 |volume=84 |issue=38 |pages=377–392 |doi=10.1029/2003EO380001|bibcode=2003EOSTr..84..377W |doi-access= }}</ref> There are many kinds of in situ sensors, and the different types are often compared on dedicated field campaigns or lab experiments called "round robins." In situ data are archived in data libraries such as the [[SeaBASS (data archive)|SeaBASS data archive]]. Some examples of in situ sensors (or networks of many sensors) used to calibrate or validate satellite data are: 
* Marine Optical Buoy ([[Marine optical buoy|MOBY]])
* Aerosol Robotic Network ([[AERONET]])
* PANTHYR instrument<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vansteenwegen |first1=Dieter |last2=Ruddick |first2=Kevin |last3=Cattrijsse |first3=Andre |last4=Vanhellemont |first4=Quinten |last5=Beck |first5=Matthew |title=The Pan-and-Tilt Hyperspectral Radiometer System (PANTHYR) for Autonomous Satellite Validation Measurements—Prototype Design and Testing |journal=Remote Sensing |date=2019 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1360 |doi=10.3390/rs11111360|bibcode=2019RemS...11.1360V |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Trios-RAMSES<ref>{{cite web |title=RAMSES - TriOS Mess- und Datentechnik |url=https://www.trios.de/en/ramses.html |publisher=TriOS Optical Sensors |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref>
* Compact Optical Profiling System (C-OPS)<ref>{{cite web |title=C-OPS: Compact Optical Profiling System |url=http://www.biospherical.com/BSI%20PDFs/Brochures/C-OPS_Brochure_11-25-09.pdf |website=Biospherical Instruments Inc. |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref>
* HyperSAS and HyperPro instruments<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyperspectral Surface Acquisition System |url=https://www.seabird.com/hyperspectral-surface-acquisition-system/product?id=54627923900 |website=Sea-Bird Scientific |access-date=23 August 2021}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans|Environment|Earth sciences}}
* [[Color of water]]
* [[Ocean optics]]
* [[Oceanography]]
* [[Remote sensing]]
* [[Satellite imagery]]
* [[Water clarity]]
* [[Water remote sensing]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.ioccg.org/ International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group]
* [https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's Ocean Color Home Page]
* [https://www.oceanopticsbook.info/ Ocean Optics Web Book]

[[Category:Oceanography]]
[[Category:Earth observation]]
[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Biological oceanography]]
[[Category:Aquatic ecology]]
[[Category:Marine biology]]
[[Category:Water]]
[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)]]

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