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{{short description|Overview of pollution in China}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2014}}
[[File:Fanhe Town 10 day interval contrast.png|thumb|Comparison of [[haze]] and sunny days in [[Liaoning]], China. The two images were taken 10 days apart.]]
'''Pollution in China''' is one aspect of the broader topic of [[environmental issues in China]]. Various forms of [[pollution]] have increased as [[China]] has [[Industrialization|industrialised]], causing widespread environmental health problems.<ref name=Diamond>[[Jared Diamond]], ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]'', [[Penguin Books]], 2005 and 2011 ({{ISBN|9780241958681}}). See chapter 12 entitled "China, Lurching Giant" (pages 258–377).</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18563_162-2895653.html |title=The Most Polluted Places on Earth |publisher=CBS News |date=8 January 2010 |access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=10221268 |title=Air Pollution Grows in Tandem with China's Economy |newspaper=NPR.org |publisher=NPR |access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref>

==Pollution statistics==
The immense population growth in the People's Republic of China since the 1980s has resulted in increased [[Environmental policy in China#Soil pollution|soil pollution]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, food safety and sustainable agriculture. 38,610 square miles (100,000&nbsp;km2) of China's cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate further 31.5 million miles (21,670&nbsp;km2.), and another 2 million miles (1,300&nbsp;km2) have been covered or destroyed by solid waste.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} The affected area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivatable land. An estimated 6 million tonnes of food grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 29 billion [[Renminbi|yuan]] (US$2.57 billion).{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} The presence of heavy metals (including, for example, mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, nickel, chromium, and zinc) in the contaminated soil have adverse health effects on human [[metabolism]]. Ingestion, contact through the skin, diet through the soil-food chain, respiratory intake, and oral intake can deliver the toxic substances to human beings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xiuying |display-authors=etal |title=Impact of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution on Food Safety in China |journal=PLOS ONE |date=7 August 2015 |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=e0135182 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135182 |pmid=26252956 |pmc=4529268 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035182Z |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Waste===
As China's waste production increases, insufficient efforts to develop capable recycling systems have been attributed to a lack of environmental awareness.<ref>{{cite news|date=28 July 2011|access-date=29 July 2011|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2011/0728/As-China-s-prosperity-grows-so-do-its-trash-piles|title=As China's prosperity grows, so do its trash piles|author=Violet Law|newspaper=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref> In 2012, the waste generation in China was 300 million tons (229.4&nbsp;kg/cap/yr).<ref>[http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ Waste Atlas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007045220/http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ |date=7 October 2014 }} (2012). Country Data: CHINA</ref>

A ban came into effect on 15 June 2008 that prohibited all supermarkets, department stores and shops throughout China from giving out free plastic bags, therefore encouraging people to use cloth bags.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bodeen|first1=Christopher|title=China Bans Free Plastic Bags|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/01/080110-AP-bags.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116082007/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/01/080110-AP-bags.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 January 2008|publisher=National Geographic News|access-date=27 February 2017}}</ref> Stores must clearly mark the price of plastic shopping bags and are banned from adding that price onto the price of products. The production, sale and use of ultra-thin plastic bags{{em dash}}those less than 0.025 millimeters (0.00098&nbsp; in) thick{{em dash}}are also banned. The State Council called for "a return to cloth bags and shopping baskets."<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/01/09/asia/plastic.php "China bans free plastic shopping bags"], AP Press via the ''[[International Herald Tribune]]'', 9 January 2008</ref> This ban, however, does not affect the widespread use of paper shopping bags at clothing stores or the use of plastic bags at restaurants for takeout food. A survey by the International Food Packaging Association found that in the year after the ban was implemented, 10 percent fewer plastic bags found their way into the garbage.<ref>David Biello, Scientific American, [http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=does-banning-plastic-bags-work-09 Does banning plastic bags work?]</ref>

A particularly important amount of waste in generated in the agricultural sector. In fact, Chinese farms generate more pollution than factories, according to a large survey made by the government.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Watts |first1=Jonathan |last2=correspondent |first2=Asia environment |date=2010-02-09 |title=Chinese farms cause more pollution than factories, says official survey |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/feb/09/china-farms-pollution |access-date=2023-05-06 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Pesticides and fertilizer residues, packaging associated, bags and mulch film are largely left untreated in landfills, often due to a lack of waste management infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Xiaoqian |last2=Mola-Yudego |first2=Blas |last3=Selkimäki |first3=Mari |last4=Zhang |first4=Xiaoning |last5=Qu |first5=Mei |date=2023-01-01 |title=Determinants of farmers' waste generation and disposal in rural areas of central China |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20491-9 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=9011–9021 |doi=10.1007/s11356-022-20491-9 |pmid=35655009 |issn=1614-7499}}</ref>

===="White pollution"====
The term "white pollution" ({{zh|s=白色污染|p=baise wuran}}, less often "white garbage" {{zh|s=白色垃圾|p=baise laji}}) appears to be local to China and later to South Asia, enjoying far less use and recognition outside of the region. It refers to the color of white plastic shopping bags, [[Styrofoam]] containers, and other light-colored materials that began turning up in visible volume in agricultural fields, the landscape, and waterways in the mid- to late 1990s. The first references to the term "white pollution" appear in official language at least as early as 1999, when the first bans were imposed by the State Council.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iechika |first1=Ryoko (家近亮子) |title=日本の対中環境協力と中国の環境行政システム |journal=环境情报研究8号 |date=2000 |volume=8 |page=95 (note 1) |url=https://keiai.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=1646&item_no=1&attribute_id=19&file_no=1 |access-date=24 November 2021 |trans-title=Japanese environmental cooperation for China and the system of environmental administration of China |language=Japanese |quote=The term 'white pollution' refers to the contamination caused by dumping of plastic products such as PET bottles and burning of styrofoam products such as disposable lunch boxes. In China, a mandate was handed down from the State Council to eliminate 'white pollution.' It was held in October 1999 that the production and use of disposable plastic returnable containers would be prohibited in 2000. China is the world's fourth largest plastic product producing country. Source: People's Daily International Edition, Oct. 18, 1999.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chinese cities to curb 'white pollution' |url=http://en.people.cn/english/200011/16/eng20001116_55321.html |access-date=24 November 2021 |agency=People's Daily (English edition) |date=16 November 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=爱山环保日活动挑战"白色污染" (Aishan Ecology Day activities set to battle 'white pollution') |url=http://www.people.com.cn/GB/huanbao/56/20020316/688680.html |access-date=24 November 2021 |publisher=People's Daily |date=16 March 2002 |language=Chinese}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Chen |first1=Zhiyong |title=Finding solutions to 'white pollution' |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2006-01/21/content_514297.htm |access-date=24 November 2021 |publisher=People's Daily (English edition) |date=21 January 2006 |quote=But despite their handiness, the plastic bags and foam plastic food containers have been associated with 'white pollution,' because they are non-degradable.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrell |first1=Stevan |last2=Hinckley |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Li |first3=Xingxing |last4=Ho |first4=Joanne |last5=Warren |first5=Kayanna |last6=Nadal |first6=Ross T. |title=Historical ecological change in the upper Baiwu Valley (白乌溪流域的历代生态变迁) |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/baiwu.pdf}}</ref>

====Electronic waste====
{{main|Electronic waste in China}}

In 2011, China produced 2.3 million tons of electronic waste.<ref>BONN. "Urgent Need to Prepare Developing Countries for Surge in E-wastes." UN University, 22 February 2010. Web. 22 December 2015.</ref> The annual amount is expected to increase as the Chinese economy grows. In addition to domestic waste production, large amounts of electronic waste are imported from overseas. Legislation banning the importation of electronic waste and requiring proper disposal of domestic waste has recently been introduced, but has been criticized as insufficient and susceptible to fraud.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} There have been local successes, such as in the city of [[Tianjin]], where 38,000 tons of electronic waste were disposed of properly in 2010, but much electronic waste is still improperly handled.<ref>Mitch Moxley, "E-Waste Hits China", Inter Press Service, 2011 http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=56572 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014122635/http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=56572 |date=14 October 2011 }}</ref>

===Industrial pollution===
[[File:Factory in China.jpg|thumb|Air pollution caused by industrial plants]]
In 1997, the [[World Bank]] issued a report targeting China's policy towards industrial pollution. The report stated that "hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution. Since the Industrial Revolution, air pollution has been a major source of worry for human growth. Using an original survey in China, a first causal estimates of pollution's impact on political opinions was given. The survey further stated that, due to serious contamination of China's waterways by industrial discharges, many are largely unfit for direct human use. However, the report did acknowledge that environmental regulations and industrial reforms have had some effect. It was determined that continued environmental reforms were likely to have a large effect on reducing industrial pollution.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&piPK=64165421&theSitePK=469372&menuPK=64216926&entityID=000009265_3971229181112|title=Surviving success: policy reform and the future of industrial pollution in China, Volume 1|author1=Dasgupta, Susmita|author2=Hua Wang|author3=Wheeler, David|date=30 November 1997|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=14 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416215547/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&piPK=64165421&theSitePK=469372&menuPK=64216926&entityID=000009265_3971229181112|archive-date=16 April 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In a 2007 article about China's pollution problem, ''[[The New York Times]]'' stated that "[[Environmental degradation]] is now so severe, with such stark domestic and international repercussions, that pollution poses not only a major long-term burden on the Chinese public but also an acute political challenge to the ruling Communist Party." The article's main points included:<ref name="NYT2007">{{cite news|title=As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html?pagewanted=all|author1=Kahn, Joseph |author2=Jim Yardley |date=26 August 2007|work=The New York Times |access-date=14 March 2009}}</ref>

# According to the Chinese Ministry of Health, industrial pollution has made cancer China's leading cause of death.
# Every year, ambient air pollution alone kills hundreds of thousands of citizens.
# 500 million people in China are without safe and clean drinking water.
# Only 1% of the country's 560 million city dwellers breathe air considered safe by the European Union, because all of its major cities are constantly covered in a "toxic gray shroud". Before and during the [[2008 Summer Olympics]], Beijing was "frantically searching for a magic formula, a meteorological [[deus ex machina]], to clear its skies for the 2008 Olympics."<ref>See [[Concerns and controversies at the 2008 Summer Olympics#Air pollution|Air pollution at the 2008 Summer Olympics]]. A similar approach was used for other events such as the [[2015 China Victory Day Parade]] and the [[2016 G20 Hangzhou summit]].</ref>
# Lead poisoning or other types of local pollution continue to kill many children.
# A large section of the ocean is without marine life because of massive algal blooms caused by the high nutrients in the water.
# The pollution has spread internationally: sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides fall as acid rain on Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo; and according to the Journal of Geophysical Research, the pollution even reaches Los Angeles in the US.
# The Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning in 2003 produced an unpublished internal report which estimated that 300,000 people die each year from ambient [[air pollution]], mostly of [[heart disease]] and [[lung cancer]].
# Chinese environmental experts in 2005 issued another report, estimating that annual premature deaths attributable to outdoor air pollution were likely to reach 380,000 in 2010 and 550,000 in 2020.
# A 2007 [[World Bank]] report conducted with China's national environmental agency found that "[...] outdoor air pollution was already causing 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths a year. Indoor pollution contributed to the deaths of an additional 300,000 people, while 60,000 died from [[diarrhoea]], bladder and stomach cancer and other diseases that can be caused by water-borne pollution." World Bank officials said that "China’s environmental agency insisted that the health statistics be removed from the published version of the report, citing the possible impact on 'social stability'".

A draft of a 2007 combined World Bank and SEPA report stated that up to 760,000 people died prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution. High levels of air pollution in China's cities caused to 350,000–400,000 premature deaths. Another 300,000 died because of indoor air of poor quality. There were 60,000 premature deaths each year because of water of poor quality. Chinese officials asked that some of the results should not be published in order to avoid social unrest.<ref name=WBD2007>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6265098.stm|title= China 'buried smog death finding' |publisher= BBC |date= 3 July 2007}}</ref>

China has made some improvements in environmental protection during recent years. According to the World Bank, 'China is one of a few countries in the world that have been rapidly increasing their forest cover. It is managing to reduce air and [[#Water pollution|water pollution]].<ref>{{cite news |last= Wassermann|first= Rogerio|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7972125.stm|title=Can China be green by 2020? |publisher= BBC|date= 2 April 2009}}</ref>

Vennemo ''et al.'', in a 2009 literature review in ''[[Review of Environmental Economics and Policy]]'', noted the wide discrepancy between the reassuring view presented in some Chinese official publications and the exclusively negative view in some Western sources. The review stated that "although China is starting from a point of grave pollution, it is setting priorities and making progress that resemble what occurred in industrialized countries during their earlier stages of development." Environmental trends were described as uneven. A quality of surface water in the south of China was improving and particle emissions were stable. But NO2 emissions were increasing rapidly and SO2 emissions had been increasing before decreasing in 2007, the last year for which data was available.<ref name=Vennem2009>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vennemo | first1 = H. | last2 = Adnan | first2 = K. | last3 = Lindhjem | first3 = H. | last4 = Seip | first4 = H. M. | title = Environmental Pollution in China: Status and Trends | doi = 10.1093/reep/rep009 | journal = Review of Environmental Economics and Policy | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 209 | year = 2009 | s2cid = 4654754 }}</ref>

Conventional approaches to [[air quality monitoring]] in China are based on networks of static and sparse measurement stations. However, there are drivers behind current rises in the use of low-cost sensors for air pollution management in cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The rise of low-cost sensing for managing air pollution in cities|url = http://eprints.qut.edu.au/82013/|journal = Environment International|date = 1 February 2015|pages = 199–205|volume = 75|doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.019|pmid = 25483836|first1 = Prashant|last1 = Kumar|first2 = Lidia|last2 = Morawska|authorlink2=Lidia Morawska|first3 = Claudio|last3 = Martani|first4 = George|last4 = Biskos|first5 = Marina|last5 = Neophytou|first6 = Silvana|last6 = Di Sabatino|first7 = Margaret|last7 = Bell|first8 = Leslie|last8 = Norford|first9 = Rex|last9 = Britter| bibcode=2015EnInt..75..199K | s2cid=17860920 |hdl = 11585/522801|hdl-access = free}}</ref>

The immense urban growth of Chinese cities has substantially increased the need for consumer goods, vehicles and energy. This in turn increases the burning of [[fossil fuels]], resulting in smog. Exposure to Smog poses a threat to the health of Chinese citizens. A study from 2012 showed fine particles in the air, which cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases were one of the key pollutants that are accounted for a large fraction of damage on the health of Chinese citizens.<ref>Matus, K.; Nam K.; Selin, N.; Lamsal, L.; Reilly, J.; Paltsev, S. (2012) [https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/61774/MITJPSPGC_Rpt196.pdf%3Bjsessionid%3D837D627A33DDFC9B77B8D8C164FA3BBE?sequence%3D1 Health damages from air pollution in China]. Global Environment Change. | pp. 55–66 |</ref>

===Water pollution===
The [[water resources of China]] are affected by both severe water shortages and severe water pollution.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}} The rapid population increase and rapid economic growth, as well as lax environmental oversight, resulted in an increased water demand and pollution. According to an investigation in 1980, the entire country has 440 billion cubic meters of the total water consumption. Consumption by agriculture, forestry, husbandry, and country residents was about 88 per cent of the total consumption. However, an investigation shows that 19 per cent of water in main rivers has been polluted as well as a total length of 95,000 kilometers. In addition, a survey for 878 rivers in the early 1980s shows that 80 per cent of them were polluted to some extent, and fish became extinct in more than 5 per cent of total river length throughout the country. Furthermore, there are over 20 waterways unsuitable for agricultural irrigation due to water pollution.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Xie|first1=Yongming|title=An Overview of Water, Water Pollution and Control in China.|journal=Environmental Management and Health|date=1992|volume=3|issue=2|page=18|doi=10.1108/09566169210013966|id={{ProQuest|204532250}}}}</ref> 
In response, China has taken measures such as rapidly building out the water infrastructure and increased regulation as well as exploring a number of further technological solutions.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Air pollution===
[[File:Haze_over_China_25-06-2009.jpg|thumb|North-Eastern China from space, 2009. Thick haze blown off the Eastern coast of China, over Bo Hai Bay and the Yellow Sea. The haze might result from urban and industrial pollution.]]
{{Quote box|quote=In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principally coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might. |author=[[Tim Flannery]] |source=''Atmosphere of Hope'', 2015.<ref name="pnas.org">[[Tim Flannery]], ''Atmosphere of Hope. Solutions to the Climate Crisis'', [[Penguin Books]], 2015, pages 28 ({{ISBN|9780141981048}}). This sentence of the book has a note citing the reference: Yuyu Chen ''et al.'', [http://www.pnas.org/content/110/32/12936.full.pdf "Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China's Huai River policy"], ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]'', volume 110, number 32, 6 August 2013, pages 12936-12941.</ref> |width=300px}}
[[File:Air-Pollution-in-China-Mapping-of-Concentrations-and-Sources-pone.0135749.s004.ogv|thumb|Map of PM2.5 pollution over China from April to August 2014]]

Air pollution is a major public health issue in China. Over the past three decades, the rapid development of China has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. Among the 337 cities, more than 40 percent of the major air pollutant concentrations exceeded Chinese standards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Zhengjie |last2=Wang |first2=Feng |last3=Liu |first3=Beibei |last4=Zhang |first4=Bing |date=2022 |title=Short-Term and Long-Term Impacts of Air Pollution Control on China's Economy |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00267-022-01664-1 |journal=Environmental Management |language=en |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=536–547 |doi=10.1007/s00267-022-01664-1 |pmid=35612624 |s2cid=249045935 |issn=0364-152X}}</ref> In the last few years, however, China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution. In 2016, only 84 out of 338 [[Prefecture-level city|prefecture-level]] (administrative division of the [[China|People's Republic of China]] (PRC), ranking below a [[Province of China|province]] and above a [[Counties of the People's Republic of China|county]]) or higher cities attained the national standard for air quality.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2017/01-20/8131237.shtml|title=84 cities met the national standard of air quaility in 2016, 11 more compared to last year}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=May 2022|reason=State-owned news source}} However, by 2018, those 338 cities enjoyed good air quality on 79% of days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-01/07/c_137726516.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928052012/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-01/07/c_137726516.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 September 2019|title=China's air quality improves in 2018 – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|website=www.xinhuanet.com|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=May 2022|reason=state-owned news source}} The amount of harmful particulates in the air in China fell 40% from 2013 to 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-06-14 |title=China Reduced Air Pollution in 7 Years as Much as US Did in Three Decades |language=en |work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-06-14/china-s-clean-air-campaign-is-bringing-down-global-pollution |access-date=2022-06-17}}</ref>

Average PM2.5 concentrations fell by 33% from 2013 to 2017 in 74 cities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://m.greenpeace.org/eastasia/high/press/releases/climate-energy/2018/PM25-in-Beijing-down-54-nationwide-air-quality-improvements-slow-as-coal-use-increases/|title=PM2.5 in Beijing down 54%, but nationwide air quality improvements slow as coal use increases {{!}} Greenpeace East Asia|website=m.greenpeace.org|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> The overall pollution in China fell further 10% between 2017 and 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/10/asia/china-wuhan-pollution-problems-intl-hnk/index.html|title=China has made major progress on air pollution. Wuhan protests show there's still a long way to go|author=Analysis by James Griffiths|website=CNN|date=11 July 2019|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> Another study shows that China reduced PM2.5 by 47% between 2005 and 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Bin|last2=Zheng|first2=Haotian|last3=Wang|first3=Shuxiao|last4=Smith|first4=Kirk R.|last5=Lu|first5=Xi|last6=Aunan|first6=Kristin|last7=Gu|first7=Yu|last8=Wang|first8=Yuan|last9=Ding|first9=Dian|last10=Xing|first10=Jia|last11=Fu|first11=Xiao|date=4 December 2018|title=Change in household fuels dominates the decrease in PM2.5 exposure and premature mortality in China in 2005–2015|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=115|issue=49|pages=12401–12406|doi=10.1073/pnas.1812955115|issn=0027-8424|pmid=30455309|pmc=6298076|bibcode=2018PNAS..11512401Z|doi-access=free}}</ref> In August 2019, Beijing experienced the lowest PM2.5 on record—a low of 23 micrograms per cubic meter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecns.cn/news/2019-09-20/detail-ifzpefys6627197.shtml|title=PM 2.5 in Beijing drops to record low in August|website=www.ecns.cn|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> Beijing is on track to drop out of the Top 200 most polluted cities by the end of 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2019-09-beijing-exit-polluted-cities.html|title=Beijing to exit 200 most polluted cities list|website=phys.org|language=en-us|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=July 2020}} The reasons are many fold:<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=An|first1=Zhisheng|last2=Huang|first2=Ru-Jin|last3=Zhang|first3=Renyi|last4=Tie|first4=Xuexi|last5=Li|first5=Guohui|last6=Cao|first6=Junji|last7=Zhou|first7=Weijian|author-link7=Weijian Zhou|last8=Shi|first8=Zhengguo|last9=Han|first9=Yongming|last10=Gu|first10=Zhaolin|last11=Ji|first11=Yuemeng|date=2019-04-30|title=Severe haze in northern China: A synergy of anthropogenic emissions and atmospheric processes|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=116|issue=18|pages=8657–8666|doi=10.1073/pnas.1900125116|pmc=6500134|pmid=30988177|bibcode=2019PNAS..116.8657A|doi-access=free}}</ref> (1) Millions of homes and businesses are switching from coal to natural gas<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-11/china-is-winning-its-war-on-air-pollution-at-least-in-beijing|title=China Is Winning Its War on Air Pollution, at Least in Beijing|last=Murtaugh|first=Dan|work=Bloomberg}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/12/18/669757478/the-good-news-and-not-so-good-news-about-chinas-smoggy-air|title=The Good News (And Not So Good News) About China's Smoggy Air|website=NPR.org|date=18 December 2018|language=en|access-date=28 September 2019|last1=Yu|first1=Katrina}}</ref> and (2) Afforestation measures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2018/01/06/huge-china-reforestation-campaign-kicks-high-gear/|title=Huge China Reforestation Campaign Kicks into High Gear|date=6 January 2018|website=CleanTechnica|language=en-US|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> China is also the world's largest producer of electric cars.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/auto/top-10-countries-selling-most-electric-cars-norways-highest-density-to-chinas-top-production-3412961.html|title=Top 10 Countries Selling Most Electric Cars: Norway's Highest Density to China's Top Production|website=news18.com|access-date=29 August 2021}}</ref>

Air pollution levels dropped in early 2020 due to quarantines addressing the [[COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China|coronavirus pandemic]]. By early 2021, however, the levels had risen again.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Shugang |last2=Zhou |first2=Weijian |author-link2=Weijian Zhou|last3=Xiong |first3=Xiaohu |last4=Burr |first4=G.S. |last5=Cheng |first5=Peng |last6=Wang |first6=Peng |last7=Niu |first7=Zhenchuan |last8=Hou |first8=Yaoyao |title=The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on atmospheric CO2 in Xi'an, China |journal=Environmental Research |date=June 2021 |volume=197 |pages=111208 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2021.111208|pmid=33895110 |pmc=8061636 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Asmelash|first=Leah|date=16 March 2021|title=Satellite images show air pollution returning to pre-pandemic levels as restrictions loosen|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/16/us/covid-air-pollution-return-trnd/index.html|access-date=2021-03-16|website=CNN}}</ref>

The Chinese government realized that the pollution had an effect on public sentiment so it increased funding to reduce dissatisfaction. An example of this is that in 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution.<ref name=":2" /> In the first batch of 74 cities that implemented the 2012 Environmental Air Quality Standards, the average concentration of PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide dropped by 42 percent and 68 percent, respectively, between 2013 and 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecns.cn/cns-wire/2019-06-05/detail-ifziyumy2108996.shtml|title=China reports air quality progress from 2013 to 2018|website=www.ecns.cn|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref>

[[Zhong Nanshan]], the president of the [[China Medical Association]], warned in 2012 that air pollution could become China's biggest health threat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/mar/16/air-pollution-biggest-threat-china|title=Air pollution could become China's biggest health threat, expert warns|last=Watts|first=Jonathan|date=16 March 2012|work=The Guardian|access-date=29 April 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Measurements by Beijing municipal government in January 2013 showed that highest recorded level of PM2.5 (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers in size), was at nearly 1,000&nbsp;μg per cubic meter.<ref name="NYT43133">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/world/asia/two-major-air-pollutants-increase-in-china.html|title=2 Major Air Pollutants Increase in Beijing|last=Wong|first=Edward|date=3 April 2013|access-date=4 April 2013|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> PM2.5, consisting of K+, Ca2+, NO3−, and SO42-, had the most fearsome impact on people's health in Beijing throughout the year, especially in cold seasons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Lei|last2=Li|first2=Hong|last3=Zhang|first3=Xinmin|last4=Wang|first4=Li|last5=Xu|first5=Linghong|last6=Wang|first6=Xuezhong|last7=Yu|first7=Yanting|last8=Zhang|first8=Yujie|last9=Cao|first9=Guan|date=January 2014|title=Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of benzene homologues in ambient air in the northeastern urban area of Beijing, China|journal=Journal of Environmental Sciences|volume=26|issue=1|pages=214–223|doi=10.1016/s1001-0742(13)60400-3|pmid=24649709|issn=1001-0742}}</ref> Traces of smog from mainland China has been observed to reach as far as California.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/16/chinese-struggle-through-airpocalypse-smog?INTCMP=SRCH|title=Chinese struggle through 'airpocalypse' smog|last=Kaiman|first=Jonathan|date=16 February 2013|work=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=4 March 2013}}</ref>

[[Sulfur dioxide]] emission peaked at 2006, after which it began to decline by 10.4% in 2008 compared to 2006.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last2=Streets|first2=D. G.|last3=Zhang|first3=Q.|last4=Wang|first4=S.|last5=Carmichael|first5=G. R.|last6=Cheng|first6=Y. F.|last7=Wei|first7=C.|last8=Chin|first8=M.|last9=Diehl|first9=T.|year=2010|title=Sulfur dioxide emissions in China and sulfur trends in East Asia since 2000|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|volume=10|issue=13|pages=6311|doi=10.5194/acp-10-6311-2010|last1=Lu|first1=Z.|last10=Tan|first10=Q.|bibcode=2010ACP....10.6311L|doi-access=free}}</ref> This was accompanied by improvements on related phenomenons such as lower frequency of [[acid rain]]fall. The adoption by power plants of [[flue-gas desulfurization]] technology was likely the main reason for reduced SO2 emissions.<ref name=":02" />

Large-scale use of [[formaldehyde]] in make home building products in construction and furniture also contributes to [[indoor air quality|indoor air pollution]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-05/21/content_876476.htm|title=Pollution makes cancer the top killer|date=21 May 2007|publisher=Xie Chuanjiao (China Daily)}}</ref>

====Particulates====
[[Particulates]] are formed from both primary and secondary pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kroll|first1=Jesse H.|last2=Seinfeld|first2=John H.|date=1 May 2008|title=Chemistry of secondary organic aerosol: Formation and evolution of low-volatility organics in the atmosphere|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=42|issue=16|pages=3593–3624|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.01.003|bibcode=2008AtmEn..42.3593K}}</ref> Primary sources such as [[Coal in China|coal combustion]], biomass combustion and traffic directly emit [[Particulates|particulate matter]] (PM). The emissions from [[power plant]]s are considerably higher than in other countries, as most Chinese facilities do not employ any [[flue gas]] treatment.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/ciab/papers/power_generation_from_coal.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=3 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218063516/http://www.iea.org/ciab/papers/power_generation_from_coal.pdf |archive-date=18 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> High secondary aerosol<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/air-research/secondary-organic-aerosol-soas-research|title=Secondary Organic Aerosol (SOAs) Research|last=EPA, ORD|first=US|website=www.epa.gov|language=en|access-date=29 April 2017|date=16 September 2014}}</ref> (particulates formed through atmospheric oxidation and reactions of gaseous organic compounds) contribution to particulate pollution in China is found.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=Ru-Jin|last2=Zhang|first2=Yanlin|last3=Bozzetti|first3=Carlo|last4=Ho|first4=Kin-Fai|last5=Cao|first5=Jun-Ji|last6=Han|first6=Yongming|last7=Daellenbach|first7=Kaspar R.|last8=Slowik|first8=Jay G.|last9=Platt|first9=Stephen M.|title=High secondary aerosol contribution to particulate pollution during haze events in China|journal=Nature|doi=10.1038/nature13774|pmid=25231863|volume=514|issue=7521|year=2014|pages=218–222|url=https://boris.unibe.ch/59537/7/Huang%20et%20al%202014_High%20secondary%20aerosol%20contribution%20to%20particulate%20pollution%20during%20haze%20events%20in%20China.pdf|bibcode=2014Natur.514..218H|s2cid=205240719}}</ref> According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, such fine particles can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory symptoms such as shortness of breath and painful breathing, and may also lead to premature death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/region4/sesd/pm25/p2.html|title=PM2.5|website=United States Environmental Protection Agency|access-date=7 October 2014|date=29 January 2013}}</ref>

According to the World Bank, the Chinese cities with the highest levels of [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulate matter]] in 2004 of those studied were [[Tianjin]], [[Chongqing]], and [[Shenyang]].<ref>[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/table3_13.pdf "2007 World Development Indicators: Air Pollution." Table 3.13.]. World Bank (2007). Washington, DC.</ref> In 2012 stricter air pollution monitoring of ozone and PM2.5 were ordered to be gradually implemented from large cities and key areas to all [[Prefecture-level city|prefecture-level cities]], and from 2015 all [[Prefecture-level city|prefecture-level]] or higher cities were included.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.mep.gov.cn/|title=Ministry of Environmental Protection The People's Republic of China}}</ref> State media acknowledged the role of environmental campaigners in causing this change. On one micro-blog service, more than a million mostly positive comments were posted in less than 24 hours although some wondered if the standards would be effectively enforced.<ref>Hennock, Mary (1 March 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/01/china-air-pollution-tough-rules "China combats air pollution with tough monitoring rules"]. ''The Guardian''.</ref>

The US embassy in Beijing regularly posts automated air quality measurements at @beijingair on [[Twitter]]. On 18 November 2010, the feed described the PM2.5 [[Air quality index|AQI]] (Air Quality Index) as "crazy bad" after registering a reading in excess of 500 for the first time. This description was later changed to "beyond index",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20101123/04445111985/us-embassy-accidentally-calls-beijings-pollution-crazy-bad.shtml|title=US Embassy Accidentally Calls Beijing's Pollution 'Crazy Bad'|date=23 November 2010|publisher=Techdirt|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref> a level which recurred in February, October, and December 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/beijing-s-polluted-air-defies-standard-measure-1.612474|title=Beijing's polluted air defies standard measure|date=26 February 2011|publisher=Ctv.ca|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/29/world/la-fg-china-air-quality-20111030/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101014005/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/29/world/la-fg-china-air-quality-20111030|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 November 2011|title=U.S. Embassy air quality data undercut China's own assessments|date=29 October 2011|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|author=Barbara Demick|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://2ndgreenrevolution.com/2011/12/13/pollution-in-beijing-reaches-beyond-index-levels/|title=Pollution in Beijing Reach Beyond Index Levels|date=13 December 2011|publisher=2ndgreenrevolution.com|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref>

In June 2012, following strongly divergent disclosures of particulate levels between the Observatory and the US Embassy, Chinese authorities asked foreign consulates to stop publishing "inaccurate and unlawful" data.<ref name="20120605Xinhua3">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120606010958/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2012-06/05/c_131633044.htm "Foreign embassies' air data issuing inaccurate, unlawful: official"]. Xinhua, 5 June 2012</ref> Officials said it was "not scientific to evaluate the air quality of an area with results gathered from just only one point inside that area", and asserted that official daily average PM2.5 figures for Beijing and Shanghai were "almost the same with the results published by foreign embassies and consulates".<ref name="20120605Xinhua3" />

By January 2013 the pollution had worsened with official Beijing data showing an average AQI over 300 and readings of up to 700 at individual recording stations while the US Embassy recorded over 755 on 1 January and 800 by 12 January 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/12/air-pollution-in-beijing-china_n_2461473.html|title=Beijing, China Air Pollution Hits Hazardous Levels|date=12 January 2013|publisher=Huffingtonpost.com|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20998147|title=BBC News – Beijing air pollution soars to hazard level|date=12 January 2013|publisher=BBC|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref>

On 21 October 2013, [[2013 Northeastern China smog|record smog in Northeast China]] temporarily closed all primary and middle schools in [[Harbin]] along with the [[Harbin Airport]]. Daily [[particulate]] levels of more than 50 times the [[World Health Organization]] recommended daily level were reported in parts of the municipality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euronews.com/2013/10/21/china-record-smog-levels-shut-down-city-of-harbin/|title=China: record smog levels shut down city of Harbin &#124; euronews, world news|date=21 October 2013|publisher=Euronews.com|access-date=21 October 2013|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030062135/https://www.euronews.com/2013/10/21/china-record-smog-levels-shut-down-city-of-harbin|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2016, Beijing's yearly-average PM2.5 was 73 μg/m3, 9.9% improvement compared to 2015. In total, 39 severely polluted days were recorded, 5 fewer compared to 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Quality in China |url=https://healthandsafetyinshanghai.com/air-quality-in-china/ |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=Shanghai Health and Safety |language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:2016_Air_pollution_in_Beijing.svg|center|thumb|1000x1000px|2016 Air pollution in Beijing as measured by Air Quality Index (AQI){{Columns-start}}
{{legend|#7e0023| Severely polluted }}
{{legend|#8f3f97| Heavily polluted }}
{{legend|#ff0000| Moderately polluted }}
{{Column}}
{{legend|#ff7e00| Lightly polluted }}
{{legend|#ffff00| Good }}
{{legend|#00e400|Excellent}}
{{Columns-end}}]]

<div style="text-align: center;">'''Analysis of the PM2.5 sources of some Chinese cities / regions'''<ref name="yl">{{cite journal | title=A Review of Recent Advances in Research on PM2.5 in China| year=2018| pmc=5876983| last1=Lin| first1=Y.| last2=Zou| first2=J.| last3=Yang| first3=W.| last4=Li| first4=C. Q.| journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health| volume=15| issue=3| page=438| doi=10.3390/ijerph15030438| pmid=29498704| doi-access=free}} {{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref> (click "show" to expand the table)</div>
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
! Location !! Main Sources of PM2.5 !! Sampling Time Period !! Method
|-
| Ningbo || Urban dust (20.42%), coal dust (14.37%) and vehicle exhaust (15.15%) || 15–24 Mar 2010; 31 May–9 June 2010; 10–19 Dec 2010 || CMB
|-
| Urumchi || Urban dust (24.7%), coal dust (15.6%) and secondary particles (38.0%) || 19–30 Jan 2013 || CMB
|-
| Qizhou || Dust (21–35%), secondary particles (25–26%) and vehicle exhaust (21–26%) || Sep 2013; Feb–Mar 2014; May 2014 || CMB
|-
| Ningbo || Urban dust (19.9%), coal dust (14.4%), secondary sulfate (16.9%), vehicle exhaust (15.2%), secondary nitrate (9.78%) and secondary organic carbon (8.85%) || 25–31 Jan 2010; 31 May–6 June 2010; 10–16 Oct 2010 || CMB
|-
| Tianjin || Open source (urban dust, soil dust and construction cement dust, total contribution of 30%),Secondary particles (secondary sulfate/nitrate, secondary carbon, total contribution of 28%), coal dust (19.6%) and vehicle exhaust (15.9%) || 13–20 May 2010; 20–27 Oct 2010; 19–26 Dec 2010 || CMB
|-
| Chongqing || Secondary particles (30.1%) and moving source (27.9%) || 6–28 Feb 2012; 6–28 Aug 2012; 19–27 Oct 2012; 7–29 Dec 2012 || CMB
|-
| Beijing || Secondary inorganic salts (36%), organic matter (20%), vehicle/fuel (16%), coal burning (15%), soil dust (6%) and others (7%) || Aug 2012–July 2013, continuous for 5 to 7 days per month || CMB
|-
| Xining || Urban dust (26.24%), coal dust (14.5%), vehicle exhaust (12.8%), secondary sulphate (9.0%), biomass burning (6.6%), secondary nitrates (5.7%), steel dust (4.7%), construction dust (4.4%), soil dust (4.4%), food and beverage emissions (2.9%) and other unidentified sources (5.2%) || 26 Feb–4 Mar 2014; 22–28 Apr 2014; 19–25 Sep 2014 || CMB
|-
| Xingtai || Coal dust (25%), secondary inorganic particles (sulfate and nitrate, 45%), vehicle exhaust (11%), dust (9%), soil dust (3%), construction and metallurgical dust (1%) and other unidentified sources (3%) || 24 Feb–15 Mar 2014; 22 Apr–19 May 2014; 15–28 July 2014 || CMB
|-
| Wuhan || Vehicle sources (27.1%), secondary sulphates/nitrates (26.8%), manufacturing emissions (26.4%) and biomass combustion (19.6%) || July 2011–Feb 2012 || CMB
|-
| Chengdu || Soil dust and raise dust (14.3%), biomass combustion (28.0%), vehicle sources (24.0%) and secondary nitrates/sulfates (31.3%) || 29 Apr–17 May 2009; 6 July–6 Aug 2009; 26 Oct–26 Nov 2009; 1–31 Jan 2010 || CMB
|-
| Shenzhen || Secondary sulphate (30.0%), vehicle sources (26.9%), biomass combustion (9.8%) and secondary nitrates (9.3%) || Jan–Dec 2009 || CMB
|-
| Suburbs of Shanghai || Secondary aerosol (50.8%), fuel combustion (17.5%), biomass combustion/sea salt (17.2%), raise dust/construction dust (7.7%), and coal-burning/smelting dust (6.9%) || 23 Dec 2012–18 Feb 2014 || CMB
|-
| North China || Coal combustion (29.6%), biomass combustion (19.3%) and vehicle sources (15.9%) || 3 Jan–11 Feb 2014 || CMB
|-
| Lanzhou || Steel industry, secondary aerosols, coal combustion, power plants, vehicle emissions, crustal dust, and smelting industry contributed 7.1%, 33.0%, 28.7%, 3.12%, 8.8%, 13.3%, and 6.0%, respectively, in winter, and 6.7%, 14.8%, 3.1%, 3.4%, 25.2%, 11.6% and 35.2% in summer || Winter 2012 and summer 2013 || PMF
|-
| Chongqing || Secondary inorganic aerosols (37.5%), coal combustion (22.0%), other industrial pollution (17.5%), soil dust (11.0%), vehicular emission (9.8%) and metallurgical industry (2.2%) || 2012–2013 || PMF
|-
| Yellow River Delta National Nature Reserve (YRDNNR) || Secondary sulphate and nitrate (54.3%), biomass burning (15.8%), industry (10.7%), crustal matter (8.3%), vehicles (5.2%) and copper smelting (4.9%) || Jan–Nov 2011 || PMF
|-
| Shanghai || Coal burning (30.5%), gasoline engine emission (29.0%), diesel engine emission (17.5%), air-surface exchange (11.9%) and biomass burning (11.1%) || Oct 2011–Aug 2012 || PMF
|-
| Zhengzhou || Coal burning (29%), vehicle (26%), dust (21%), secondary aerosols (17%) and biomass burning (4%) || Apr 2011–Dec 2013 || PMF
|-
| Qingshan District, Wuhan || Traffic exhaust (28.60%), industry (27.10%), road dust (22%), coal combustion (13.20%) and building dust (9.5%) || 15 Nov–28 Dec 2013 || PMF
|-
| Beijing || Industrial dust and human activities (40.3%), biomass combustion and building dust (27.0%), soil and wind induced dust (9.1%), fossil fuel sources (4.9%), electronic waste sources (4.8%) and regional migration sources (4.6%) || 16 Jan–28 Feb 2013 || FA
|-
| Hangdan || Secondary aerosol source, transportation, fossil fuel and biomass burning (46.5%), soil and construction dust (19.5%), steel industry (19.5%) and transportation (9%) || Jan, Apr, July and Oct 2015 || PCA
|-
| Hangdan || Industry and coal burning (33.3%), secondary aerosol and biomass burning (21.7%), vehicle (12.8%) and road dust (9.1%), || Oct 2012–Jan 2013 || PCA
|-
| Guangzhou || Moving sources (37.4%), industrial emissions (32.2%), electricity emissions (12.2%), residential emissions (6.6%) and others (11.6%) || Jan–Dec 2013 || WRF/Chem+ observation data analysis
|-
| Heze || Secondary inorganic salt (32.61%), vehicle emissions (22.60%), raise dust (19.64%), coal dust (16.25%) and construction cement dust (9.00%) || 13–22 Aug 2015; 21–30 Oct 2015; 14–23 Jan 2016 7–16 Apr 2016 || PMF and backward trajectory model
|-
| Tianjin || Secondary sources (30%), crustal dust (25%), vehicle exhaust (16%), coal combustion (13%), SOC (7.6%) and cement dust (0.40%) || Apr 2014–Jan 2015 || Chemical mass balance gas constraint-Iteration (CMBGC-Iteration)
|-
| Tianjin || Secondary sources (28%), crustal dust (20%), coal combustion (18%), vehicle exhaust (17%), SOC (11%) and cement dust (1.3%) || Apr 2014–Jan 2015 || Ensemble-average of CMB, CMB-Iteration, CMB-GC, PMF, WALSPMF, and NCAPCA
|-
| 25 Chinese provincial capitals and municipalities || Power plants (8.7–12.7%), agriculture NH3 (9.5–12%), windblown dust (6.1–12.5%) and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) (5.4–15.5%) || 2013 || Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model
|-
| Xinzhen District, Beijing || Coal burning (29.2%), vehicle exhaust and waste incineration (26.2%), construction industry (23.3%), soil (15.4%) and industry with chlorine (5.9%) || 19 May 2007–19 July 2013 || Particle Induced X-ray Emission(PIXE), XRay Fluorescence (XRF), and PMF
|-
| Beijing || Coal (28.06%), vehicle (19.73%), dust (17.88%), industry (16.50%), food (3.43%) and plant (3.40%) || 2012 || Inventory-Chemical Mass Balance (I-CMB)
|}
The above results are summarised from multiple researches. Methods used; CMB: chemical mass balance method; PMF: positive matrix factorization; FA: factor analysis; PCA: principal component analysis; WRF: Weather Research and Forecasting; WALSPMF: Weighted Alternating Least Squares Positive Matrix Factorization; NCAPCA: Non-negative Constrained Absolutely Principle Analysis.<ref name="yl" />

====Government's response to the air pollution====
In an attempt to reduce air pollution, the Chinese government has made the decision to enforce stricter regulations. After record-high air pollution in northern China in 2012 and 2013,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2013/01/beijings-air-pollution|title=Blackest day|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=2 May 2017|date=14 January 2013}}</ref> the State Council issued an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in September 2013.<ref name=":324">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Joanna I. |title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector |date=2023 |publisher=The [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-54482-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40}} This plan aimed to reduce [[PM2.5]] by over 10% from 2012 to 2017.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andrews-Speed|first=Philip|date=November 2014|title=China's Energy Policymaking Processes and Their Consequences|url=http://nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=790|journal=The National Bureau of Asian Research Energy Security Report|access-date=24 December 2014}}</ref> Twelve west-east air pollution control transmission corridors are also being developed per the Action Plan.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=40}}

The most prominent government response has been in Beijing, aiming to reduce PM2.5 by 25% from 2012 to 2017.<ref name="uc2">{{cite journal|date=May 2014|title=An Eco-friendly Exodus: Heavy Industry in Beijing 环保政策|url=https://www.mcgill.ca/channels/news/eco-friendly-exodus-heavy-industry-beijing-%E7%8E%AF%E4%BF%9D%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96-236816|journal=McGill University Economic Publications|author=Usman W. Chohan}}</ref> As the capital of China, it is suffering from high levels of air pollution. According to Reuters, in September 2013, the Chinese government published the plan to tackle air pollution problem on its official website.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-sinopec-naturalgas-idUSBRE9A506Y20131106|title=China cuts gas supply to industry as shortages hit|date=6 November 2013|work=Reuters|last1=Stanway|first1=D}}</ref> The main goal of the plan is to reduce coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters, and switching to other eco-friendly energy sources.<ref name="uc2" />

These policies have been taking effect, and in 2015, the average PM2.5 in 74 key cities in monitoring system is 55 μg/m3, showing a 23.6% decrease as of 2013.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.mep.gov.cn/xxgk/hjyw/201607/t20160706_357205.shtml|title=《大气污染防治行动计划》实施情况中期评估报告|last=汤金兰|website=www.mep.gov.cn|access-date=29 April 2017}}</ref> Despite the reduction in coal consumption and polluting industries, China still maintained a stable economic growth rate from 7.7% in 2013 to 6.9% in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=CN|title=GDP growth (annual %) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|language=en-us|access-date=29 April 2017}}</ref>

On 20 August 2015, ahead of the 70th-anniversary celebrations of the end of [[World War II]], the Beijing government shut down industrial facilities and reduced car emissions in order to achieve a "Parade Blue" sky for the occasion. This action resulted in PM2.5 concentration lower than the 35&nbsp;μg/m3 national air quality standard,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.mep.gov.cn/Resources/standards/Air_Environment/quality_standard1/201605/t20160511_337502.shtml|title=Ambient air quality standards}}</ref> according to data from Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Monitoring Centre (BMEMC). The restrictions resulted in an average Beijing PM2.5 concentration of 19.5&nbsp;μg/m3, the lowest that had ever been on record in the capital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://energydesk.greenpeace.org/2015/08/27/china-air-pollution-beijing-records-its-cleanest-air-ever/|title=China air pollution: Beijing records its cleanest air ever|last=Boren|first=Zachary Davies|date=27 August 2015|access-date=29 August 2015}}</ref>

China's strategy has been mainly focusing on the development of other energy sources such as nuclear, hydro and [[compressed natural gas]]. The latest plan<ref name=":0" /> entails closing the outdated capacity of the industrial sectors like iron, steel, aluminum and cement and increasing nuclear capacity and other non-fossil fuel energy. It also includes an intention to stop approving new thermal power plants and to cut coal consumption in industrial areas.<ref name=":0" />

According to research,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=1 January 2015|title=Costs of Selected Policies to Address Air Pollution in China|url=http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR861.html|language=en|last1=Crane|first1=Keith|last2=Mao|first2=Zhimin}}</ref> substituting all coal consumption for residential and commercial use to natural gas requires additional 88 billion cubic meters of natural gas, which is 60% of China's total consumption in 2012, and the net cost would be 32–52 billion dollars. Substituting the share of coal-fired power plant with renewable and nuclear energy also requires 700GW additional capacity, which cost 184 billion dollars. So the net cost would be 140–160 billion dollars considering value of saved coal.<ref name=":1" /> Since all the above policies have been already partially implemented by national and city governments, they should lead to substantial improvements in urban air quality.<ref name=":1" />{{Reduced pull quote|right|In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principal coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might.|[[Tim Flannery]]|''Atmosphere of Hope'', 2015.<ref name="pnas.org" />}}

====Four-color alert system====
Beijing launched four-color alert system in 2013. It is based on the [[Air quality index#Mainland China|air quality index]] (AQI), which indicates how clean or polluted the air is.<ref>{{cite web |title=China to Unify Color-coded Pollution Alert System |date=3 December 2014 |publisher=China Radio International |url=http://english.cri.cn/12394/2014/12/03/2941s855023.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329034829/http://english.cri.cn/12394/2014/12/03/2941s855023.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 March 2015}}</ref>

The Beijing government revised their four-color alert system at the start of 2016, increasing the levels of pollution required to trigger orange and red alerts. The change was introduced to standardize the alert levels across four cities including Tianjin and four cities in Hebei, and perhaps in direct response to the red alerts issues the previous December.<ref>{{cite news |title=Beijing raises 'red alert' threshold for air pollution warning |date=21 February 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/22/beijing-raises-red-alert-threshold-for-air-pollution-warning}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=环保部：京津冀6城统一重污染预警分级 |date=5 February 2016 |publisher=新华网 |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-02/05/c_128704425.htm}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! AQI
! Description
|-
| 101–150
| Slight pollution
|-
| 151–200
| Moderate pollution
|-
| 201–300
| Heavy pollution
|-
| 301–500
| Hazardous
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Color
! Condition
|-
| style="background:blue;color:#fff" | Blue
| "Heavy pollution" in the next 24 hours
|-
| style="background: yellow;" |Yellow
| "Hazardous" in the next 24 hours; or "heavy pollution" for three consecutive days
|-
| style="background: orange;" |Orange
| Alternate "heavy pollution" and "hazardous" days for three consecutive days
|-
| style="background: red;color:#fff" |Red
| Average of "heavy pollution" for four consecutive days, "hazardous" for two consecutive days or average AQI over 500 for one day
|}

=== Light pollution ===

With active economic growth and a huge number of citizens, China is considered as the largest developing country in the world. Due to urbanization, [[light pollution]] generally is an environmental factor that significantly influences the quality and health of wildlife. According to Pengpeng Han et al., "In the 1990s, the increasing trend in light pollution regions mostly occurred in larger urban cities, which are mainly located in eastern and coastal areas, whereas the decreasing trend areas were chiefly industrial and mining cities rich in mineral resources, in addition to the central parts of large cities". In the 2000s, nearly all urban cities were dominated by an uprising trend in light pollution.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Han|first1=Pengpeng|display-authors=etal|title=Monitoring Trends in Light Pollution in China Based on Nighttime Satellite Imagery.|journal=Remote Sensing|date=2014|volume=6|issue=12|pages=5541–5542|url=http://www.pierce.ctc.edu:2189/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=e2d65b3b-2d15-4b11-8423-ef8ac55e1830%40sessionmgr4007&vid=1&hid=4207|access-date=13 March 2017|doi=10.3390/rs6065541|bibcode=2014RemS....6.5541H|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Common pollutants ==

=== Lead ===
[[Lead poisoning]] was described in a 2001 paper as one of the most common pediatric health problems in China. A 2006 review of existing data suggested that one-third of Chinese children suffer from elevated serum lead levels. Pollution from metal smelters and a fast-growing battery industry has been responsible for most cases of, particularly high lead levels. In 2011, there were riots in the Zhejiang Haijiu Battery Factory from angry parents whose children received permanent neurological damage from lead poisoning. The central government has acknowledged the problem and has taken measures such as suspending battery factory production, but some see the response as inadequate and some local authorities have tried to silence criticisms.<ref name=LeadNYTimes>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/15/world/asia/15lead.html |title=Lead Poisoning in China: The Hidden Scourge|work= The New York Times|date= 15 June 2011| first1=Sharon | last1=LaFraniere }}</ref>

A literature review of academic studies on Chinese children's blood lead levels found that the lead levels declined when comparing the studies published during 1995–2003 and 2004–2007 periods. Lead levels also showed a declining trend after China banned lead in gasoline in 2000. Lead levels were still higher than those in developed nations. Industrial areas had higher levels than suburban areas, which had higher levels than urban areas. Controlling and preventing lead poisoning was described as a long-term mission.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= He |first1= K. |last2= Wang |first2= S. |last3= Zhang |first3= J. |doi= 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.03.018 |pmid= 19395068 |title= Blood lead levels of children and its trend in China |journal= Science of the Total Environment |volume= 407 |issue= 13 |pages = 3986–3993 |year= 2009 |id= paid 19395068 |bibcode= 2009ScTEn.407.3986H }}</ref>

=== Persistent organic pollutants ===
China is a signatory nation of the [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants|Stockholm Convention]], a treaty to control and phase out major [[persistent organic pollutants]] (POP). A plan of action for 2010 includes objectives such as eliminating the production, import and use of the pesticides covered under the convention, as well as an accounting system for [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] containing equipment. For 2015, China plans to establish an inventory of POP-contaminated sites and remediation plans.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.pops.int/documents/implementation/nips/submissions/China_NIP_En.pdf |title=The People's Republic of China: National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants|publisher= Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants|year= 2007}}</ref> Since May 2009, this treaty also covers [[polybrominated diphenyl ethers]] and [[perfluorooctanesulfonic acid]]. Perfluorinated compounds are associated with altered thyroid function and decreased sperm count in humans.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.greenpeace.org/china/en/news/hazardous-chemicals-yangtze-fish|title=Swimming in Poison: A hazardous chemical cocktail found in Yangtze River Fish |publisher= Greenpeace China|date= 26 August 2010}}</ref> China faces a big challenge in controlling and eliminating POPs, since they often are cheaper than their alternatives, or are unintentionally produced and then released into the environment to save on treatment costs.

=== Yellow dust ===
The [[Yellow dust]] or Asian dust is a seasonal dust cloud which affects Northeast Asia during late winter and springtime. The dust originates in the deserts of [[Mongolia]], northern China and [[Kazakhstan]] where high-speed surface winds and intense [[dust storms]] kick up dense clouds of fine, dry soil particles. These clouds are then carried eastward by prevailing winds and pass over Northern China into Korea and Japan.

[[Desertification]] has intensified in China. 1,740,000&nbsp;square kilometres of land is classified as "dry", and desertification disrupts the lives of 400 million people and causes direct economic losses of 54 billion yuan ($7 billion) a year, SFA figures show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/03/content_842162.htm |title= Operation blitzkrieg against desert storm |work= China Daily |access-date=3 April 2007| author= Wang Ying | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070410102347/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/03/content_842162.htm| archive-date=10 April 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref> Sulfur (an [[acid rain]] component), soot, ash, carbon monoxide, and other toxic pollutants including heavy metals (such as [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[cadmium]], [[chromium]], [[arsenic]], lead, [[zinc]], copper) and other [[carcinogens]], often accompany the dust storms, as well as viruses, bacteria, fungi, [[pesticides]], [[antibiotics]], [[asbestos]], [[herbicides]], plastic ingredients, combustion products and [[hormone]] mimicking [[phthalates]].<ref name=News>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20011006/bob13.asp |title=Ill Winds |work=Science News Online |access-date=6 October 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040319153009/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20011006/bob13.asp |archive-date=19 March 2004 }}</ref>

=== Coal ===
The increasing number of air pollutants can cause incidences{{verify spelling|date=September 2022|reason=''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'', ''incidents'', or ''instances'' was intended}} of low visibility for days and acid rain. According to the article "Air Pollution in Mega Cities in China",<ref name="chan air">Chan, C. K., & Yao, X. (1 January 2008). Air pollution in megacities in China. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 1, 1–42.
</ref> "Coal accounts for 70% of the total energy consumption, and emissions from coal combustion are the major anthropogenic contributors to air pollution in China." The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences also highlights the Huai River Policy established during China's central planning period between 1950 and 1980. The policy provided homes and offices with free coal for winter heating but was limited solely to the Northern region due to budget limitations. The policy led to a dramatic increase in coal consumption and production. Coal production alongside rapid economic growth has increased the emission of harmful pollutants such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and small particle matter known as PM2.5 and PM10.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Yuyu|title=Impact of Sustained Exposure to Air Pollution on Life Expectancy from China's Huai River Policy|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|doi=10.1073/pnas.1300018110|pmid=23836630|volume=110|issue=32|year=2013|pages=12936–12941|pmc=3740827|doi-access=free}}</ref> Long-term exposure to pollutants can cause health risks such as respiratory diseases, cancer, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Coal is a huge issue because of the SO2 emissions from coal factories. According to the article, "SO2 exceeded the Chinese Grade-II standards in 22% of the country’s cities and caused acid rain problems in 38% of the cities."<ref name="chan air"/>

=== Other pollutants ===
In 2010, 49 employees at [[Wintek]] were poisoned by n-[[Hexane#Toxicity|hexane]] in the manufacturing of touchscreens for [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] products.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.chinatechnews.com/2010/02/22/11610-n-hexane-poisoning-scare-at-apple-supplier-in-china |title=N-hexane Poisoning Scare at Apple Supplier in China|publisher= China Tech News|date= 22 February 2010}}</ref>

In 2013, it was revealed that portions of the country's rice supply were tainted with the toxic metal [[cadmium]].<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324049504578541373217674356 ''China to Survey Soil Amid Fears Over Rice''], ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', 12 June 2013.</ref>

== Impact of pollution ==
[[File:Smog in Beijing CBD.JPG|thumb|240px|Smog in Beijing, 2013]]
A 2006 Chinese [[green gross domestic product]] estimate stated that pollution in 2004 cost 3.05% of the nation's economy.<ref>Sun Xiaohua (2007)
"[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-04/19/content_853917.htm Call for return to green accounting]", "China Daily", 19 April 2007.</ref>

A 2007 World Bank and SEPA report estimated the cost of water and air pollution in 2003 to 2.68% or 5.78% of GDP depending on if using a Chinese or a Western method of calculation.<ref>Cost of Pollution in China Economic Estimates of Physical Costs. 2007. World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/China_Cost_of_Pollution.pdf</ref>

A 2009 review stated a range of 2.2–10% of GDP.<ref name=Vennem2009/>

A 2012 study stated that pollution had little effect on economic growth which in China's case was largely dependent on [[physical capital]] expansion and increased energy consumption due to the dependency on manufacturing and heavy industries. China was predicted to continue to grow using energy-inefficient and polluting industries. While growth may continue, the rewards of this growth may be opposed by the harm from the pollution unless environmental protection is increased.<ref>Polluting China for the sake of economic growth. 27 April 2012. EurekAlert!. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-04/ip-pcf042712.php</ref>

A 2013 study published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] found that severe pollution during the 1990s cut five and a half (5.5) years from the average life expectancy of people living in northern China, where toxic air has led to increased rates of stroke, heart disease and cancer.<ref name="WebMD China PNAS">{{cite web|title=Air pollution in Northern China cuts life expectancy by 5.5 years|url=http://webmd.cn/en/air-pollution-cuts-life-expectancy/|publisher=WebMD China|date=12 August 2013}}</ref>

A 2015 study from the non-profit organization [[Berkeley Earth]] estimated that 1.6 million people in China die each year from heart, lung and stroke problems because of polluted air.<ref name="theg_Airp">{{Cite news | title = Air pollution in China is killing 4,000 people every day, a new study finds | newspaper = [[The Guardian]] | date = 13 August 2015 | access-date = 14 August 2015 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/14/air-pollution-in-china-is-killing-4000-people-every-day-a-new-study-finds | agency = Associated Press }}</ref>

===Cross-border pollution===

== Pollution ratings ==
As of 2019:

*The top five cities with the best air quality: [[Lhasa]], [[Haikou]], [[Zhoushan]], [[Xiamen]], [[Huangshan City|Huangshan]]<ref name="Most polluted cities">{{Cite web|date=15 December 2020|title=Report on the State of the Ecology and Environment in China 2019|url=http://english.mee.gov.cn/Resources/Reports/soe/SOEE2019/202012/P020201215587453898053.pdf|access-date=27 May 2021|website=[[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]]}}</ref>
*The 10 cities with the worst [[air quality]]: [[Anyang]], [[Xingtai]], [[Shijiazhuang]], [[Handan]], [[Linfen]], [[Tangshan]], [[Taiyuan]], [[Zibo]], [[Jiaozuo]], [[Jincheng]]<ref name="Most polluted cities" />

According to the National Environmental Analysis released by [[Tsinghua University]] and The Asian Development Bank in January 2013, seven of the ten most air polluted cities in the world are in China, including [[Taiyuan]], [[Beijing]], [[Urumqi]], [[Lanzhou]], [[Chongqing]], [[Jinan]] and [[Shijiazhuang]].<ref>{{cite news|title=WEATHER & EXTREME EVENTS 7 of 10 Most Air-Polluted Cities Are in China|url=http://news.discovery.com/earth/weather-extreme-events/7-of-10-most-air-polluted-cities-china-130116.htm|access-date=1 September 2014|work=16 January 2013|agency=http://news.discovery.com|publisher=Imaginechina/Corbis}}</ref>

== National Sword Policy ==
{{Excerpt|Operation National Sword}}

==See also (some in only original [[Chinese language|Chinese]])==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[2009 Chinese lead poisoning scandal]]
*[[2013 Eastern China smog]]
*[[2013 Northeastern China smog]]
*[[Automotive industry in China]]
*[[China Energy Conservation Investment Corporation]]
*[[China Pollution Map Database]]
*[[Clear waters and green mountains]]
*[[Climate change in China]]
*[[Construction]]
*[[Environment of China]]
*[[Environmental issues in China]]
*[[Phase-out_of_lightweight_plastic_bags#Asia|Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags]]
*[[Brother Nut]]
*[[List of power stations in China]]
*[[Low-carbon economy]]
*[[Peak oil]]
*[[Renewable energy in China]]
*[[Renovation]]
*[[Soot]]
*[[List of countries by energy consumption and production]]
*[[:Category:Energy by country]]

*[[Haze]]
*[[Smog]]
{{div col end}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国大气污染防治法 (1987年)|Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (1987)]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国大气污染防治法 (1995年)|Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (1995)]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国大气污染防治法 (2000年)|Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2000)]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国大气污染防治法 (2015年)|Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2015)]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国大气污染防治法 (2018年)|Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2018)]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国土壤污染防治法|Soil Pollution Prevention and Control law]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国固体废物污染环境防治法|Solid Waste Pollution Prevention and Control law]]}}
#{{align|left|[[s:zh:中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法|Radioactive Pollution Prevention and Control law]]}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Jared Diamond]], ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]'', [[Penguin Books]], 2005 and 2011 ({{ISBN|9780241958681}}). See chapter 12 entitled "China, Lurching Giant" (pages 258–377).

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*[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-07/15/content_348397.htm Most polluted cities in China]
* [http://www.asiasociety.org/beijingair Clearing the Air: China's Environmental Challenge – Asia Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622015308/http://www.asiasociety.org/beijingair/ |date=22 June 2009 }} – Overview on China air pollution problem

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Latin: A a Á á À à Â â Ä ä Ǎ ǎ Ă ă Ā ā Ã ã Å å Ą ą Æ æ Ǣ ǣ B b C c Ć ć Ċ ċ Ĉ ĉ Č č Ç ç D d Ď ď Đ đ Ḍ ḍ Ð ð E e É é È è Ė ė Ê ê Ë ë Ě ě Ĕ ĕ Ē ē Ẽ ẽ Ę ę Ẹ ẹ Ɛ ɛ Ǝ ǝ Ə ə F f G g Ġ ġ Ĝ ĝ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ H h Ĥ ĥ Ħ ħ Ḥ ḥ I i İ ı Í í Ì ì Î î Ï ï Ǐ ǐ Ĭ ĭ Ī ī Ĩ ĩ Į į Ị ị J j Ĵ ĵ K k Ķ ķ L l Ĺ ĺ Ŀ ŀ Ľ ľ Ļ ļ Ł ł Ḷ ḷ Ḹ ḹ M m Ṃ ṃ N n Ń ń Ň ň Ñ ñ Ņ ņ Ṇ ṇ Ŋ ŋ O o Ó ó Ò ò Ô ô Ö ö Ǒ ǒ Ŏ ŏ Ō ō Õ õ Ǫ ǫ Ọ ọ Ő ő Ø ø Œ œ Ɔ ɔ P p Q q R r Ŕ ŕ Ř ř Ŗ ŗ Ṛ ṛ Ṝ ṝ S s Ś ś Ŝ ŝ Š š Ş ş Ș ș Ṣ ṣ ß T t Ť ť Ţ ţ Ț ț Ṭ ṭ Þ þ U u Ú ú Ù ù Û û Ü ü Ǔ ǔ Ŭ ŭ Ū ū Ũ ũ Ů ů Ų ų Ụ ụ Ű ű Ǘ ǘ Ǜ ǜ Ǚ ǚ Ǖ ǖ V v W w Ŵ ŵ X x Y y Ý ý Ŷ ŷ Ÿ ÿ Ỹ ỹ Ȳ ȳ Z z Ź ź Ż ż Ž ž ß Ð ð Þ þ Ŋ ŋ Ə ə
Greek: Ά ά Έ έ Ή ή Ί ί Ό ό Ύ ύ Ώ ώ Α α Β β Γ γ Δ δ Ε ε Ζ ζ Η η Θ θ Ι ι Κ κ Λ λ Μ μ Ν ν Ξ ξ Ο ο Π π Ρ ρ Σ σ ς Τ τ Υ υ Φ φ Χ χ Ψ ψ Ω ω {{Polytonic|}}
Cyrillic: А а Б б В в Г г Ґ ґ Ѓ ѓ Д д Ђ ђ Е е Ё ё Є є Ж ж З з Ѕ ѕ И и І і Ї ї Й й Ј ј К к Ќ ќ Л л Љ љ М м Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Т т Ћ ћ У у Ў ў Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Џ џ Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я ́
IPA: t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ ɟ ɡ ɢ ʡ ʔ ɸ β θ ð ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ ʜ ʢ ɦ ɱ ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ ʋ ɹ ɻ ɰ ʙ ⱱ ʀ ɾ ɽ ɫ ɬ ɮ ɺ ɭ ʎ ʟ ɥ ʍ ɧ ʼ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ ɨ ʉ ɯ ɪ ʏ ʊ ø ɘ ɵ ɤ ə ɚ ɛ œ ɜ ɝ ɞ ʌ ɔ æ ɐ ɶ ɑ ɒ ʰ ʱ ʷ ʲ ˠ ˤ ⁿ ˡ ˈ ˌ ː ˑ ̪ {{IPA|}}

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pollution in China: Sitelink, Title, Description: en

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