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Seed dispersal by ants (''[[myrmecochory]]'') is a dispersal mechanism of many shrubs of the southern hemisphere or understorey herbs of the northern hemisphere.<ref name=myrmdistreview/> Seeds of myrmecochorous plants have a lipid-rich attachment called the [[elaiosome]], which attracts ants. Ants carry such seeds into their colonies, feed the elaiosome to their larvae and discard the otherwise intact seed in an underground chamber.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Giladi, I. |year=2006|title= Choosing benefits or partners: a review of the evidence for the evolution of myrmecochory|journal=Oikos|volume=112|pages=481–492|doi=10.1111/j.0030-1299.2006.14258.x|issue=3|citeseerx=10.1.1.530.1306}}</ref> Myrmecochory is thus a coevolved mutualistic relationship between plants and seed-disperser ants. Myrmecochory has independently evolved at least 100 times in flowering plants and is estimated to be present in at least 11 000 species, but likely up to 23 000 (which is 9% of all species of flowering plants).<ref name=myrmdistreview/> Myrmecochorous plants are most frequent in the fynbos vegetation of the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, the kwongan vegetation and other dry habitat types of Australia, dry forests and grasslands of the Mediterranean region and northern temperate forests of western Eurasia and eastern North America, where up to 30–40% of understorey herbs are myrmecochorous.<ref name=myrmdistreview/> Seed dispersal by ants is a mutualistic relationship and benefits both the ant and the plant.<ref name="Handel-1990">{{Cite journal|last1=Handel|first1=Steven N.|last2=Beattie|first2=Andrew J.|date=1990|title=Seed Dispersal by Ants|journal=Scientific American|volume=263|issue=2|pages=76–83B|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0890-76|jstor=24996901|bibcode=1990SciAm.263b..76H|issn=0036-8733}}</ref> |
Seed dispersal by ants (''[[myrmecochory]]'') is a dispersal mechanism of many shrubs of the southern hemisphere or understorey herbs of the northern hemisphere.<ref name=myrmdistreview/> Seeds of myrmecochorous plants have a lipid-rich attachment called the [[elaiosome]], which attracts ants. Ants carry such seeds into their colonies, feed the elaiosome to their larvae and discard the otherwise intact seed in an underground chamber.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Giladi, I. |year=2006|title= Choosing benefits or partners: a review of the evidence for the evolution of myrmecochory|journal=Oikos|volume=112|pages=481–492|doi=10.1111/j.0030-1299.2006.14258.x|issue=3|citeseerx=10.1.1.530.1306}}</ref> Myrmecochory is thus a coevolved mutualistic relationship between plants and seed-disperser ants. Myrmecochory has independently evolved at least 100 times in flowering plants and is estimated to be present in at least 11 000 species, but likely up to 23 000 (which is 9% of all species of flowering plants).<ref name=myrmdistreview/> Myrmecochorous plants are most frequent in the fynbos vegetation of the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, the kwongan vegetation and other dry habitat types of Australia, dry forests and grasslands of the Mediterranean region and northern temperate forests of western Eurasia and eastern North America, where up to 30–40% of understorey herbs are myrmecochorous.<ref name=myrmdistreview/> Seed dispersal by ants is a mutualistic relationship and benefits both the ant and the plant.<ref name="Handel-1990">{{Cite journal|last1=Handel|first1=Steven N.|last2=Beattie|first2=Andrew J.|date=1990|title=Seed Dispersal by Ants|journal=Scientific American|volume=263|issue=2|pages=76–83B|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0890-76|jstor=24996901|bibcode=1990SciAm.263b..76H|issn=0036-8733}}</ref> |
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{{anchor|Melittochory}}Seed dispersal by bees (''melittochory'') is an unusual dispersal mechanism for a small number of tropical plants. As of 2023 it has only been documented in five plant species including ''[[Corymbia torelliana]]'', ''[[Coussapoa asperifolia]]'' subsp. ''magnifolia'', ''[[Zygia racemosa]]'', ''[[Vanilla odorata]]'', and ''[[Vanilla planifolia]]''. The first three are tropical trees and the last two are tropical vines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karremans |first1=Adam P. |last2=Bogarín |first2=Diego |last3=Fernández Otárola |first3=Mauricio |last4=Sharma |first4=Jyotsna |last5=Watteyn |first5=Charlotte |last6=Warner |first6=Jorge |last7=Rodríguez Herrera |first7=Bernal |last8=Chinchilla |first8=Isler F. |last9=Carman |first9=Ernesto |last10=Rojas Valerio |first10=Emmanuel |last11=Pillco Huarcaya |first11=Ruthmery |last12=Whitworth |first12=Andy |title=First evidence for multimodal animal seed dispersal in orchids |journal=Current Biology |date=January 2023 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=364–371.e3 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.11.041 |
{{anchor|Melittochory}}Seed dispersal by bees (''melittochory'') is an unusual dispersal mechanism for a small number of tropical plants. As of 2023 it has only been documented in five plant species including ''[[Corymbia torelliana]]'', ''[[Coussapoa asperifolia]]'' subsp. ''magnifolia'', ''[[Zygia racemosa]]'', ''[[Vanilla odorata]]'', and ''[[Vanilla planifolia]]''. The first three are tropical trees and the last two are tropical vines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karremans |first1=Adam P. |last2=Bogarín |first2=Diego |last3=Fernández Otárola |first3=Mauricio |last4=Sharma |first4=Jyotsna |last5=Watteyn |first5=Charlotte |last6=Warner |first6=Jorge |last7=Rodríguez Herrera |first7=Bernal |last8=Chinchilla |first8=Isler F. |last9=Carman |first9=Ernesto |last10=Rojas Valerio |first10=Emmanuel |last11=Pillco Huarcaya |first11=Ruthmery |last12=Whitworth |first12=Andy |title=First evidence for multimodal animal seed dispersal in orchids |journal=Current Biology |date=January 2023 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=364–371.e3 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.11.041}}</ref> |
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Seed predators, which include many rodents (such as squirrels) and some birds (such as jays) may also disperse seeds by hoarding the seeds in hidden caches.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Forget, P.M. |author2=Milleron, T. |name-list-style=amp |year=1991|title= Evidence for secondary seed dispersal by rodents in Panama|journal=Oecologia|volume=87|pages=596–599|doi=10.1007/BF00320426|pmid=28313705 |issue=4|bibcode=1991Oecol..87..596F|s2cid=32745179 }}</ref> The seeds in caches are usually well-protected from other seed predators and if left uneaten will grow into new plants. Rodents may also disperse seeds when the presence of [[secondary metabolites]] in ripe fruits causes them to spit out certain seeds rather than consuming them.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Samuni-Blank, M.|year=2012|title= Intraspecific directed deterrence by the mustard oil bomb in a desert plant|journal=Current Biology|volume=22|pages=1–3|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.051|issue=13|pmid=22704992|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}</ref> Finally, seeds may be secondarily dispersed from seeds deposited by primary animal dispersers, a process known as [[diplochory]]. For example, dung beetles are known to disperse seeds from clumps of feces in the process of collecting dung to feed their larvae.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Andresen E. |author2=Levey, D.J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2004|title= Effects of dung and seed size on secondary dispersal, seed predation, and seedling establishment of rainforest trees|journal=Oecologia|volume=139|pages=45–54|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1480-4|pmid=14740290|issue=1|bibcode=2004Oecol.139...45A|s2cid=28576412 }}</ref> |
Seed predators, which include many rodents (such as squirrels) and some birds (such as jays) may also disperse seeds by hoarding the seeds in hidden caches.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Forget, P.M. |author2=Milleron, T. |name-list-style=amp |year=1991|title= Evidence for secondary seed dispersal by rodents in Panama|journal=Oecologia|volume=87|pages=596–599|doi=10.1007/BF00320426|pmid=28313705 |issue=4|bibcode=1991Oecol..87..596F|s2cid=32745179 }}</ref> The seeds in caches are usually well-protected from other seed predators and if left uneaten will grow into new plants. Rodents may also disperse seeds when the presence of [[secondary metabolites]] in ripe fruits causes them to spit out certain seeds rather than consuming them.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Samuni-Blank, M.|year=2012|title= Intraspecific directed deterrence by the mustard oil bomb in a desert plant|journal=Current Biology|volume=22|pages=1–3|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.051|issue=13|pmid=22704992|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free}}</ref> Finally, seeds may be secondarily dispersed from seeds deposited by primary animal dispersers, a process known as [[diplochory]]. For example, dung beetles are known to disperse seeds from clumps of feces in the process of collecting dung to feed their larvae.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Andresen E. |author2=Levey, D.J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2004|title= Effects of dung and seed size on secondary dispersal, seed predation, and seedling establishment of rainforest trees|journal=Oecologia|volume=139|pages=45–54|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1480-4|pmid=14740290|issue=1|bibcode=2004Oecol.139...45A|s2cid=28576412 }}</ref> |
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