revising taxonomy of this species
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| status = LC |
| status = LC |
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| status_system = IUCN3.1 |
| status_system = IUCN3.1 |
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| status_ref = <ref name= |
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Gygis alba'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T22694821A132576063 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694821A132576063.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> |
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| genus = Gygis |
| genus = Gygis |
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| parent_authority = |
| parent_authority = |
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| species = alba |
| species = alba |
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| authority = ([[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1786) |
| authority = ([[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1786) |
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The '''white tern''' or '''common white tern''' (''Gygis alba'') is a small [[seabird]] found across the [[tropical]] oceans of the world<ref>{{Cite web|title=Common White Tern (Gygis alba) - BirdLife species factsheet|url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/common-white-tern-gygis-alba|access-date=2021-05-04|website=datazone.birdlife.org}}</ref> |
The '''white tern''' or '''common white tern''' ('''''Gygis alba''''') is a small [[seabird]] found across the [[tropical]] oceans of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Common White Tern (Gygis alba) - BirdLife species factsheet|url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/common-white-tern-gygis-alba|access-date=2021-05-04|website=datazone.birdlife.org}}</ref> It is sometimes known as the '''fairy tern,''' although this name is potentially confusing as it is also the common name of ''[[Sternula nereis]]''. Other names for the species include '''angel tern''' and '''white noddy''' in English, and '''manu-o-Kū''' in [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]. The little white tern (''[[Little white tern|Gygis microrhyncha]]''), previously considered a subspecies of the white tern (''Gygis alba microrhyncha''), is now recognised as a separate species.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=del Hoyo|first1=J|title=HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Non-passerines.|last2=Collar|first2=N.J.|last3=Christie|first3=D.A.|last4=Elliott|first4=A.|last5=Fishpool|first5=L.D.C.|publisher=Lynx Edicions BirdLife International|year=2014|location=Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK.}}</ref> |
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==Taxonomy== |
==Taxonomy== |
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The white tern was first [[Species description|formally described]] by the Swedish naturalist [[Anders Sparrman]] in 1786 under the binomial name ''Sterna alba''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Sparrman | first=Anders | author-link=Anders Sparrman | year=1786–1789 | title=Museum Carlsonianum, in quo novas et selectas aves, coloribus ad vivum brevique descriptiones illustratas | volume=fasc. 1 | place=Holmiae | publisher=Ex Typographia Regia | language=la | at=Plate 11 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41149055 }}</ref> The genus ''Gygis'' was introduced by the German zoologist [[Johann Georg Wagler]] in 1832.<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Wagler | first=Johann Georg | author-link=Johann Georg Wagler | year=1832 | title=Neue Cippen und Gattugen der Caugthiere und Vögel | journal=Isis von Oken | at=Column 1223 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26455531 | language=de, la }}</ref> The name ''Gygis'' is from the [[Ancient Greek]] |
The white tern was first [[Species description|formally described]] by the Swedish naturalist [[Anders Sparrman]] in 1786 under the binomial name ''Sterna alba''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Sparrman | first=Anders | author-link=Anders Sparrman | year=1786–1789 | title=Museum Carlsonianum, in quo novas et selectas aves, coloribus ad vivum brevique descriptiones illustratas | volume=fasc. 1 | place=Holmiae | publisher=Ex Typographia Regia | language=la | at=Plate 11 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41149055 }}</ref> The genus ''Gygis'' was introduced by the German zoologist [[Johann Georg Wagler]] in 1832.<ref>{{ cite journal | last=Wagler | first=Johann Georg | author-link=Johann Georg Wagler | year=1832 | title=Neue Cippen und Gattugen der Caugthiere und Vögel | journal=Isis von Oken | at=Column 1223 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26455531 | language=de, la }}</ref> The name ''Gygis'' is from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{transl|grc|guges}} for a mythical bird and the specific {{lang|la|alba}} is Latin for "white".<ref name=jobling>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn= 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=37, 182 }}</ref> |
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[[Molecular phylogenetic]] studies have shown that the white tern is more closely related to the [[Noddy (tern)|noddies]] than it is to the other terns.<ref>{{ cite journal | last1=Baker | first1=A.J. | last2=Pereira | first2=S.L. | last3=Paton | first3=T.A. | year=2007 | title=Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of Charadriiformes genera: multigene evidence for the Cretaceous origin of at least 14 clades of shorebirds | journal=Biology Letters | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=205–209 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0606 | pmc=2375939 | pmid=17284401}} {{ cite journal | title=Erratum: Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of Charadriiformes genera: multigene evidence for the Cretaceous origin of at least 14 clades of shorebirds | year=2008 | journal=Biology Letters | volume=4 | pages=762–763 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0606erratum | last1 = Baker | first1 = Allan J | last2 = Pereira | first2 = Sérgio L | last3 = Paton | first3 = Tara A| doi-access= free }}</ref> This implies that "white noddy" would be a more appropriate English name.<ref name=ioc/> |
[[Molecular phylogenetic]] studies have shown that the white tern is more closely related to the [[Noddy (tern)|noddies]] than it is to the other terns.<ref>{{ cite journal | last1=Baker | first1=A.J. | last2=Pereira | first2=S.L. | last3=Paton | first3=T.A. | year=2007 | title=Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of Charadriiformes genera: multigene evidence for the Cretaceous origin of at least 14 clades of shorebirds | journal=Biology Letters | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=205–209 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0606 | pmc=2375939 | pmid=17284401}} {{ cite journal | title=Erratum: Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of Charadriiformes genera: multigene evidence for the Cretaceous origin of at least 14 clades of shorebirds | year=2008 | journal=Biology Letters | volume=4 | pages=762–763 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2006.0606erratum | last1 = Baker | first1 = Allan J | last2 = Pereira | first2 = Sérgio L | last3 = Paton | first3 = Tara A| doi-access= free }}</ref> This implies that "white noddy" would be a more appropriate English name.<ref name="ioc">{{cite web|year=2019|editor1-last=Gill|editor1-first=Frank|editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist)|editor2-last=Donsker|editor2-first=David|title=Noddies, gulls, terns, auks|url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/gulls/|access-date=24 June 2019|work=World Bird List Version 9.2|publisher=International Ornithologists' Union}}</ref> |
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The white tern has the following recognized [[subspecies]]: |
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The white tern has the following [[subspecies]]:<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | year=2019 | title=Noddies, gulls, terns, auks | work=World Bird List Version 9.2 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/gulls/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=24 June 2019 }}</ref> |
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*''G. a. alba'', ([[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1786): tropical islands of the south [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] |
*''G. a. alba'', ([[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]], 1786):<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gygis alba alba (Common White-Tern (Atlantic)) - Avibase|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=38B88F11B15E34DB|access-date=2021-05-04|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org}}</ref> tropical islands of the south [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] including [[Fernando de Noronha]], [[Trindade and Martin Vaz|Trindade]], Martin Vas Rocks, [[Ascension Island|Ascension]] and [[Saint Helena|St. Helena]] islands |
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*''G. a. candida'', ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1789): [[Seychelles]] & [[Mascarene Islands]] to central [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] including southern [[Maldives]] excluding |
*''G. a. candida'', ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1789):<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gygis alba candida (Common White-Tern (Pacific)) - Avibase|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=4AF5F3C4DD47B1FD|access-date=2021-05-04|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org}}</ref> [[Seychelles]] & [[Mascarene Islands]] to central [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] including southern [[Maldives]] excluding rangeof''G. a. leucopes'' and ''Gygis microrhyncha'' |
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*''G. a. leucopes'', Holyoak & Thibault, 1976:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gygis alba leucopes (Common White-Tern (leucopes)) - Avibase|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?lang=EN&avibaseid=F4C855E8EF6B6ED9|access-date=2021-05-04|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org}}</ref> [[Pitcairn Islands]] |
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*''G. a. microrhyncha'', [[Howard Saunders|Saunders]], 1876: [[Phoenix Islands|Phoenix]], [[Line Islands|Line]] and [[Marquesas Islands|Marquesas]] Islands |
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*''G. a. leucopes'', Holyoak & Thibault, 1976: [[Pitcairn Islands]] |
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Some authors have postulated that there may be three species of ''Gygis:'' ''Gygis alba'', in the Atlantic Ocean, and ''[[Gygis candida]]'' and ''Gygis microrhyncha'', both in the Pacific.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pratt |first1=H. Douglas |title=Species limits and English names in the genus Gygis (Laridae) |journal=Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club |date=22 June 2020 |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=195–208 |doi=10.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a10 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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The white tern has a wingspan of {{convert|76|-|87|cm|abbr=on|in}}.<ref name="hbwcommon">{{cite book|title=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive|last2=Burger|first2=J.|last3=Christie|first3=D.A.|last4=Kirwan|first4=G.M.|publisher=Lynx Edicions|chapter=Common White Tern (''Gygis alba'')|last1=Gochfeld|first1=M.|editor1-last=del Hoyo|editor1-first=J.|editor2-last=Elliott|editor2-first=A.|editor3-last=Sargatal|editor3-first=J.|editor4-last=Christie|editor4-first=D.A.|editor5-last=de Juana|editor5-first=E.|chapter-url=http://www.hbw.com/node/54054|access-date=16 April 2017}}</ref> It has white plumage and a long black bill.<ref name ="BNA">Niethammer, K. R., and L. B. Patrick-Castilaw. 1998. White Tern (''Gygis alba''). in ''The Birds of North America'', No. '''371''' (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. {{doi|10.2173/bna.371}}</ref> Nesting on [[coral]] islands, usually on trees with small branches but also on rocky ledges and on man-made structures, the white tern feeds on small [[fish]] which it catches by plunge diving. |
The white tern has a wingspan of {{convert|76|-|87|cm|abbr=on|in}}.<ref name="hbwcommon">{{cite book|title=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive|last2=Burger|first2=J.|last3=Christie|first3=D.A.|last4=Kirwan|first4=G.M.|publisher=Lynx Edicions|chapter=Common White Tern (''Gygis alba'')|last1=Gochfeld|first1=M.|editor1-last=del Hoyo|editor1-first=J.|editor2-last=Elliott|editor2-first=A.|editor3-last=Sargatal|editor3-first=J.|editor4-last=Christie|editor4-first=D.A.|editor5-last=de Juana|editor5-first=E.|chapter-url=http://www.hbw.com/node/54054|access-date=16 April 2017}}</ref> It has white plumage and a long black bill.<ref name ="BNA">Niethammer, K. R., and L. B. Patrick-Castilaw. 1998. White Tern (''Gygis alba''). in ''The Birds of North America'', No. '''371''' (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. {{doi|10.2173/bna.371}}</ref> Nesting on [[coral]] islands, usually on trees with small branches but also on rocky ledges and on man-made structures, the white tern feeds on small [[fish]] which it catches by plunge diving. [[Aldabra giant tortoise|Giant tortoises]] have been observed to hunt the bird on [[Frégate Island|Fregate Island]] in the [[Seychelles]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zora|first1=Anna|last2=Gerlach|first2=Justin|date=2021-08-23|title=Giant tortoises hunt and consume birds|journal=Current Biology|language=English|volume=31|issue=16|pages=R989–R990|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.088|pmid=34428417|issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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==Distribution and habitat== |
==Distribution and habitat== |
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The white tern ranges widely across the Pacific Ocean from the coasts of Chile and Colombia to New Zealand and along the eastern and southern coasts of Asia from China to India, South Maldives, the islands of the Indian Ocean, and the coast of South Africa.<ref |
The white tern ranges widely across the Pacific Ocean from the coasts of Chile and Colombia to New Zealand and along the eastern and southern coasts of Asia from China to India, South Maldives, the islands of the Indian Ocean, and the coast of South Africa.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> Rarely it is also found in Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, and on some islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is a [[pelagic]] and [[epipelagic]] bird, living along the coast and moving into wooded areas during the breeding season. |
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==Relationship with humans== |
==Relationship with humans== |
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⚫ | The white tern, ''manu-o-Kū'', was named [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]], [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]'s official bird on April 2, 2007. |
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This is one of the most useful of all the landfinding birds used by Pacific navigators. They generally roam no more than 45 km from their home island, to which they usually return at nightfall. Polynesians also caught these birds for food or to keep as pets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crowe |first1=Andrew |title=Pathway of the Birds: The Voyaging Achievements of Māori and their Polynesian Ancestors |date=2018 |publisher=David Bateman Ltd |location=Auckland |page=93}}</ref> |
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New Zealand's [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] classifies the white tern as Nationally Critical, with populations having been largely decimated by the introduction of feral cats and rats on [[Raoul Island]], the terns' only breeding site in the country.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/770307954|title=Island invasives : eradication and management : proceedings of the International Conference on Island Invasives|date=2011|publisher=IUCN|others=C. R. Veitch, Michael N. Clout, D. R. Towns, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Species Survival Commission, Centre for Biodiversity & Biosecurity|isbn=978-2-8317-1291-8|location=Gland, Switzerland|oclc=770307954}}</ref> As of 2016, the white tern population in New Zealand was reported to be increasing following the eradication of introduced predators in 2002.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Robertson|first=Hugh A.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/993614035|title=Conservation status of New Zealand birds, 2016|date=2017|others=Karen Baird, J. E. Dowding, Graeme Elliott, Rod Hitchmough, Colin Miskelly, Nikki McArthur|isbn=978-1-988514-23-9|location=Wellington, New Zealand|oclc=993614035}}</ref> Globally, the white tern has a large range that is home to several large colonies, and both recognised species are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. |
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The white tern, ''manu-o-Kū'', was named [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]], [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]'s official bird on April 2, 2007. |
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The two white tern species are both listed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, howenot considered threatened as it is a widespread species with several large colonies around the world. |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{Reflist |
{{Reflist}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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{{Wikispecies|Gygis alba}} |
{{Wikispecies|Gygis alba}} |
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* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/white-tern-gygis-alba White tern videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection |
* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/white-tern-gygis-alba White tern videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Birds described in 1786|white tern]] |
[[Category:Birds described in 1786|white tern]] |
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[[Category:Birds of Norfolk Island]] |
[[Category:Birds of Norfolk Island]] |
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[[Category:Taxa named by Anders Sparrman]] |
[[Category:Taxa named by Anders Sparrman]] |
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[[Category:Terns|white tern]] |
[[Category:Terns|white tern]] |
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[[Category:Pantropical fauna]] |
White tern | |
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A white tern on the French Frigate Shoals | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Charadriiformes |
Family: | Laridae |
Genus: | Gygis |
Species: |
G. alba
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Binomial name | |
Gygis alba (Sparrman, 1786) | |
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The white ternorcommon white tern (Gygis alba) is a small seabird found across the tropical oceans of the world.[2] It is sometimes known as the fairy tern, although this name is potentially confusing as it is also the common name of Sternula nereis. Other names for the species include angel tern and white noddy in English, and manu-o-KūinHawaiian. The little white tern (Gygis microrhyncha), previously considered a subspecies of the white tern (Gygis alba microrhyncha), is now recognised as a separate species.[3]
The white tern was first formally described by the Swedish naturalist Anders Sparrman in 1786 under the binomial name Sterna alba.[4] The genus Gygis was introduced by the German zoologist Johann Georg Wagler in 1832.[5] The name Gygis is from the Ancient Greek guges for a mythical bird and the specific alba is Latin for "white".[6]
Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the white tern is more closely related to the noddies than it is to the other terns.[7] This implies that "white noddy" would be a more appropriate English name.[8]
The white tern has the following recognized subspecies:
Some authors have postulated that there may be three species of Gygis: Gygis alba, in the Atlantic Ocean, and Gygis candida and Gygis microrhyncha, both in the Pacific.[12]
The white tern has a wingspan of 76–87 cm (30–34 in).[13] It has white plumage and a long black bill.[14] Nesting on coral islands, usually on trees with small branches but also on rocky ledges and on man-made structures, the white tern feeds on small fish which it catches by plunge diving. Giant tortoises have been observed to hunt the bird on Fregate Island in the Seychelles.[15]
The white tern ranges widely across the Pacific Ocean from the coasts of Chile and Colombia to New Zealand and along the eastern and southern coasts of Asia from China to India, South Maldives, the islands of the Indian Ocean, and the coast of South Africa.[1] Rarely it is also found in Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, and on some islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is a pelagic and epipelagic bird, living along the coast and moving into wooded areas during the breeding season.
This species is notable for laying its egg on bare thin branches in a small fork or depression without a nest. This behaviour is unusual for terns, which generally nest on the ground, and even the related tree-nesting black noddy constructs a nest. It is thought that the reason for the absence of nests is the reduction in nest parasites, which in some colonial seabirds can cause the abandonment of an entire colony.[16] In spite of these benefits there are costs associated with tree nesting, as the eggs and chicks are vulnerable to becoming dislodged by heavy winds. For this reason the white tern is also quick to relay should it lose the egg. The newly hatched chicks have well developed feet with which to hang on to their precarious nesting site. It is a long-lived bird, having been recorded living for 42[17] years.
The white tern, manu-o-Kū, was named Honolulu, Hawaiʻi's official bird on April 2, 2007.
New Zealand's Department of Conservation classifies the white tern as Nationally Critical, with populations having been largely decimated by the introduction of feral cats and rats on Raoul Island, the terns' only breeding site in the country.[18] As of 2016, the white tern population in New Zealand was reported to be increasing following the eradication of introduced predators in 2002.[18][19] Globally, the white tern has a large range that is home to several large colonies, and both recognised species are listed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List.
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