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Shanks' square forms factorization is a method for integer factorization devised by Daniel Shanks as an improvement on Fermat's factorization method.
The success of Fermat's method depends on finding integers and
such that
, where
is the integer to be factored. An improvement (noticed by Kraitchik) is to look for integers
and
such that
. Finding a suitable pair
does not guarantee a factorization of
, but it implies that
is a factor of
, and there is a good chance that the prime divisorsof
are distributed between these two factors, so that calculation of the greatest common divisorof
and
will give a non-trivial factor of
.
A practical algorithm for finding pairs which satisfy
was developed by Shanks, who named it Square Forms Factorization or SQUFOF. The algorithm can be expressed in terms of continued fractions or in terms of quadratic forms. Although there are now much more efficient factorization methods available, SQUFOF has the advantage that it is small enough to be implemented on a programmable calculator. Shanks programmed it on an HP-65, made in 1974, which has storage for only nine digit numbers and allows only 100 steps/keystrokes of programming. There are versions of the algorithm that use little memory and versions that store a list of values that run more quickly.
In 1858, the Czech mathematician Václav Šimerka used a method similar to SQUFOF to factor
.[1]
Note This version of the algorithm works on some examples but often gets stuck in a loop.
This version does not use a list.
Input: , the integer to be factored, which must be neither a prime number nor a perfect square, and a small positive integer,
.
Output: a non-trivial factor of .
The algorithm:
Initialize
Repeat
until is a perfect square at some odd value of
.
Start the second phase (reverse cycle).
Initialize ,
, and
, where
, and
are from the previous phase. The
used in the calculation of
is the recently calculated value of
.
Set and
, where
is the recently calculated value of
.
Repeat
until [citation needed]
Then if is not equal to
and not equal to
, then
is a non-trivial factor of
. Otherwise try another value of
.[citation needed]
Shanks' method has time complexity .[2]
Stephen S. McMath wrote a more detailed discussion of the mathematics of Shanks' method, together with a proof of its correctness.[3]
Let
Cycle forward | |||
---|---|---|---|
Here is a perfect square, so the first phase ends.
For the second phase, set . Then:
Reverse cycle | |||
---|---|---|---|
Here , so the second phase ends. Now calculate
, which is a factor of
.
Thus, .
Below is an example of C function for performing SQUFOF factorization on unsigned integer not larger than 64 bits, without overflow of the transient operations. [citation needed]
#include <inttypes.h>
#define nelems(x) (sizeof(x) / sizeof((x)[0]))
const int multiplier[] = {1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 3*5, 3*7, 3*11, 5*7, 5*11, 7*11, 3*5*7, 3*5*11, 3*7*11, 5*7*11, 3*5*7*11};
uint64_t SQUFOF( uint64_t N )
{
uint64_t D, Po, P, Pprev, Q, Qprev, q, b, r, s;
uint32_t L, B, i;
s = (uint64_t)(sqrtl(N)+0.5);
if (s*s == N) return s;
for (int k = 0; k < nelems(multiplier) && N <= UINT64_MAX/multiplier[k]; k++) {
D = multiplier[k]*N;
Po = Pprev = P = sqrtl(D);
Qprev = 1;
Q = D - Po*Po;
L = 2 * sqrtl( 2*s );
B = 3 * L;
for (i = 2 ; i < B ; i++) {
b = (uint64_t)((Po + P)/Q);
P = b*Q - P;
q = Q;
Q = Qprev + b*(Pprev - P);
r = (uint64_t)(sqrtl(Q)+0.5);
if (!(i & 1) && r*r == Q) break;
Qprev = q;
Pprev = P;
};
if (i >= B) continue;
b = (uint64_t)((Po - P)/r);
Pprev = P = b*r + P;
Qprev = r;
Q = (D - Pprev*Pprev)/Qprev;
i = 0;
do {
b = (uint64_t)((Po + P)/Q);
Pprev = P;
P = b*Q - P;
q = Q;
Q = Qprev + b*(Pprev - P);
Qprev = q;
i++;
} while (P != Pprev);
r = gcd(N, Qprev);
if (r != 1 && r != N) return r;
}
return 0;
}
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Primality tests |
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Prime-generating |
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Integer factorization |
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Multiplication |
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Euclidean division |
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Discrete logarithm |
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Greatest common divisor |
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Modular square root |
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Other algorithms |
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