m→Demographics: there is no requirement for fluency in the Census data, it is self-certified and respondents simply claim they "can speak Welsh" [to some unknown degree]; updated accordingly
! Language !! Native name !! Grouping !! Number of native speakers !! Number of people who have one or more skills in the language !! Main area(s) in which the language is spoken !! [[List of language regulators|Regulated by/language body]]
! Language !! Native name !! Grouping !! Number of native speakers !! Number of people who have one or more skills in the language !! Main area(s) in which the language is spoken !! [[List of language regulators|Regulated by/language body]]
|-
|-
| [[Welsh language|Welsh]] || ''Cymraeg'' || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] || 431,000 (14.6% of the population of Wales) considersthemselvestobefluent in Welsh (2011)<ref name="ons.gov.uk">Office for National Statistics 2011 http://ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh</ref> || Around '''721,700''' (2011) total speakers<br>— [[Wales]]: 562,000 speakers, 19.0% of the population of Wales,<ref name="ons.gov.uk"/><br>— [[England]]: 150,000<ref>{{Cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – UK: Welsh|publisher=UNHCR|accessdate=23 May 2010}}</ref><br>— [[Chubut Province]], Argentina: 5,000<ref name="WAG">{{cite web|title=Wales and Argentina|url=http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx|publisher=[[Welsh Assembly Government]]|year=2008|accessdate=23 January 2012|work=Wales.com website}}</ref><br>— [[United States]]: 2,500<ref>{{cite web|title=Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006-2008 Release Date: April 2010|url=http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls|format=xls|accessdate=2 January 2011|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|date=27 April 2010}}</ref><br>— [[Canada]]: 2,200<ref>{{Cite web|title=2006 Census of Canada: Topic based tabulations: Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca:80/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=70&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|accessdate=3 January 2011|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|date=7 December 2010}}</ref> || [[Wales]];<br>[[Y Wladfa]], [[Chubut Province|Chubut]] || — [[Welsh Language Commissioner]] ([[Meri Huws]])<br>— The [[Welsh Government]]<br>(previously the [[Welsh Language Board]] ''Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg'')
| [[Welsh language|Welsh]] || ''Cymraeg'' || [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]] || 431,000 (14.6% of the population of Wales) self-certify that they "can speak Welsh" (2011)<ref name="ons.gov.uk">Office for National Statistics 2011 http://ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-unitary-authorities-in-wales/stb-2011-census-key-statistics-for-wales.html#tab---Proficiency-in-Welsh</ref> || Around '''721,700''' (2011) total speakers<br>— [[Wales]]: 562,000 speakers, 19.0% of the population of Wales,<ref name="ons.gov.uk"/><br>— [[England]]: 150,000<ref>{{Cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488f25df2,49749c8cc,0.html|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – UK: Welsh|publisher=UNHCR|accessdate=23 May 2010}}</ref><br>— [[Chubut Province]], Argentina: 5,000<ref name="WAG">{{cite web|title=Wales and Argentina|url=http://www.wales.com/en/content/cms/English/International_Links/Wales_and_the_World/Wales_and_Argentina/Wales_and_Argentina.aspx|publisher=[[Welsh Assembly Government]]|year=2008|accessdate=23 January 2012|work=Wales.com website}}</ref><br>— [[United States]]: 2,500<ref>{{cite web|title=Table 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006-2008 Release Date: April 2010|url=http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/other/detailed-lang-tables.xls|format=xls|accessdate=2 January 2011|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|date=27 April 2010}}</ref><br>— [[Canada]]: 2,200<ref>{{Cite web|title=2006 Census of Canada: Topic based tabulations: Various Languages Spoken (147), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census - 20% Sample Data|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca:80/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=89189&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=70&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|accessdate=3 January 2011|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|date=7 December 2010}}</ref> || [[Wales]];<br>[[Y Wladfa]], [[Chubut Province|Chubut]] || — [[Welsh Language Commissioner]] ([[Meri Huws]])<br>— The [[Welsh Government]]<br>(previously the [[Welsh Language Board]] ''Bwrdd yr Iaith Gymraeg'')
|-
|-
| [[Irish language|Irish]] || ''Gaeilge'' || [[Goidelic]] || 40,000–80,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp|title=Irish Examiner|publisher=Archives.tcm.ie |date=24 November 2004|accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies|last=Christina Bratt Paulston|publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. Co|page=81|isbn=1-55619-347-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century|last=Pierce|first=David|year=2000|publisher=Cork University Press|page=1140|isbn=1-85918-208-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó hÉallaithe|first=Donncha|year=1999|journal=Cuisle}}<!-- ISBN # needed --></ref><br>In the Republic of Ireland, 94,000 people use Irish daily outside the education system.<ref name="csoi2011">[http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011pdr/Pdf%208%20Tables.pdf www.cso.ie Central Statistics Office, Census 2011 - This is Ireland - see table 33a ]</ref> || '''1,887,437'''<br>[[Republic of Ireland]]:<br>1,774,437<ref name=csoi2011/><br>[[United Kingdom]]:<br>95,000<br>[[United States]]:<br>18,000 || [[Ireland]] || [[Foras na Gaeilge]]
| [[Irish language|Irish]] || ''Gaeilge'' || [[Goidelic]] || 40,000–80,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2004/11/24/story517225942.asp|title=Irish Examiner|publisher=Archives.tcm.ie |date=24 November 2004|accessdate=19 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies|last=Christina Bratt Paulston|publisher=J. Benjamins Pub. Co|page=81|isbn=1-55619-347-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century|last=Pierce|first=David|year=2000|publisher=Cork University Press|page=1140|isbn=1-85918-208-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó hÉallaithe|first=Donncha|year=1999|journal=Cuisle}}<!-- ISBN # needed --></ref><br>In the Republic of Ireland, 94,000 people use Irish daily outside the education system.<ref name="csoi2011">[http://www.cso.ie/en/media/csoie/census/documents/census2011pdr/Pdf%208%20Tables.pdf www.cso.ie Central Statistics Office, Census 2011 - This is Ireland - see table 33a ]</ref> || '''1,887,437'''<br>[[Republic of Ireland]]:<br>1,774,437<ref name=csoi2011/><br>[[United Kingdom]]:<br>95,000<br>[[United States]]:<br>18,000 || [[Ireland]] || [[Foras na Gaeilge]]
Modern Celtic languages are mostly spoken on the north-western edge of Europe, notably in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man, and can be found spoken on Cape Breton Island. There are also a substantial number of Welsh speakers in the Patagonia area of Argentina. Some people speak Celtic languages in the other Celtic diaspora areas of the United States,[4] Canada, Australia,[5] and New Zealand.[6] In all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities though there are continuing efforts at revitalization. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as "endangered" by UNESCO.
During the 1st millennium BC, they were spoken across much of Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula, from the Atlantic and North Sea coastlines, up to the Rhine valley and down the Danube valley to the Black Sea, the northern Balkan Peninsula and in central Asia Minor. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. Celtic languages, particularly Irish, were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901 and are still used there to some extent.[7]
The other two, Cornish and Manx, were spoken into modern times but later died as spoken community languages.[8][9][10] For both these languages, however, revitalization movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and children and produced some native speakers.[11][12]
Taken together, there were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic languages as of the 2000s.[13] In 2010, there were more than 1.4 million speakers of Celtic languages.[14]
Demographics
Language
Native name
Grouping
Number of native speakers
Number of people who have one or more skills in the language
Brittonic, including the living languages Breton, Cornish, and Welsh, and the extinct languages Cumbric and Pictish though Pictish may be a sister language rather than a daughter of Common Brittonic.[39] Before the arrival of Scotti on the Isle of Man in the 9th century, there may have been a Brittonic language in the Isle of Man.
Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to scarceness of primary source data. Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) distinguish Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brittonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) distinguish between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic, putting most of the Gaulish and Brittonic languages in the former group and the Goidelic and Celtiberian languages in the latter. The P-Celtic languages (also called Gallo-Brittonic) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages.
The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter,[40] having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era and having evolved into Breton – still partially intelligible by modern Welsh and Cornish speakers.
In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late.
The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray and Atkinson[41][42] but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. The controversial paper by Forster and Toth[43] included Gaulish and put the break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture, the Hallstatt culture, and the La Tène culture, though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong.[44][45]
The Celtic nations where most Celtic speakers are now concentrated
There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on the Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation -nm- > -nu (Gaelic ainm / Gaulish anuana, Old Welsh enuein "names"), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation, would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a Gallo-Brittonic dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986).
The interpretation of this and further evidence is still quite contested, and the main argument in favour of Insular Celtic is connected with the development of the verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated hypothesis.[35] Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is "out of favour" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and the Insular Celtic hypothesis "widely accepted".[46]
When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brittonic".
Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in a common Italo-Celtic subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely discarded, in favour of the assumption of language contact between pre-Celtic and pre-Italic communities.[citation needed]
How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used:
Eska (2010)[47] evaluates the evidence as supporting the following tree, based on shared innovations, though it is not always clear that the innovations are not areal features. It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust. On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure. Schumacher (2004, p. 86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on the shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun *i̯os, *i̯ā, *i̯od into an uninflected enclitic particle. Eska sees Cisalpine Gaulish as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish.
Eska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because the Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a sprachbund. However, if they have another explanation (such as an SOV substratum language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be:
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics are necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include:
suffixed pronominal supplements, called confirming or supplementary pronouns
use of singulars and/or special forms of counted nouns, and use of a singulative suffix to make singular forms from plurals, where older singulars have disappeared
Examples:
(Irish) Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.
(Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.
bhacaigh is the genitive of bacach. The igh the result of affection; the bh is the lenited form of b.
leat is the second person singular inflected form of the preposition le.
The order is verb–subject–object (VSO) in the second half. Compare this to English or French (and possibly Continental Celtic) which are normally subject–verb–object in word order.
(Welsh) pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain
(literally) four on fifteen and four twenties
bymtheg is a mutated form of pymtheg, which is pump ("five") plus deg ("ten"). Likewise, phedwar is a mutated form of pedwar.
The multiples of ten are deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant.*
Comparison table
Welsh
Cornish
Breton
Irish
Scottish Gaelic
Manx
English
gwenynen
gwenenen
gwenanenn
beach
seillean, beach
shellan
bee
cadair
kador
kador
cathaoir
cathair, seidhir
caair
chair
caws
keus
keuz
cáis
càis(e)
caashey
cheese
aber
aber
aber
inbhear
inbhir
inver
estuary, mouth of a river
llawn
leun
leun
lán
làn
lane
full
gafr
gaver
gavr
gabhar
gobhar
goayr
goat
tŷ
chi
ti
teach, tigh
taigh
thie
house
gwefus
gweus
gweuz
liopa, beol
bile, lip
meill
lip (anatomical)
arian
mona, arghans
moneiz, arcʼhant
airgead
airgead
argid
silver, money
nos
nos
noz
oíche
oidhche
oie
night
rhif, nifer
niver
niver
uimhir
àireamh
earroo
number
tu fas, tu allan
yn-mes
er-maez
amuigh
a-muigh
mooie
outside
gellygen, peren
peren
perenn
piorra
peur/piar
peear
pear
chwarel
mengleudh
mengleuz
cairéal
coireall, cuaraidh
quarral
quarry
ysgol
skol
skol
scoil
sgoil
scoill
school
seren
steren
steredenn
réalta
reul
rollage
star
heddiw
hedhyw
hiziv
inniu
an-diugh
jiu
today
cwympo
kodha
kouezhañ
tit(im)
tuit(eam)
tuitt(ym)
(to) fall
ysmygu
megi
mogediñ, butuniñ
tobac a chaitheamh
smocadh
toghtaney/smookal
(to) smoke
chwibanu
hwibana
c'hwibanat
feadaíl
fead
fed
(to) whistle
Examples
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Irish: Saolaítear na daoine uile saor agus comhionann ina ndínit agus ina gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus dlíd iad féin d'iompar de mheon bráithreachas i leith a chéile.
Manx: Ta dagh ooilley pheiagh ruggit seyr as corrym ayns ard-cheim as kiartyn. Ren Jee feoiltaghey resoon as cooinsheanse orroo as by chair daue ymmyrkey ry cheilley myr braaraghyn.
Scottish Gaelic: Tha gach uile dhuine air a bhreth saor agus co-ionnan ann an urram 's ann an còirichean. Tha iad air am breth le reusan is le cogais agus mar sin bu chòir dhaibh a bhith beò nam measg fhein ann an spiorad bràthaireil.
Breton: Dieub ha par en o dellezegezh hag o gwirioù eo ganet an holl dud. Poell ha skiant zo dezho ha dleout a reont bevañ an eil gant egile en ur spered a genvreudeuriezh.
Cornish: Genys frank ha par yw oll tus an bys yn aga dynita hag yn aga gwiryow. Enduys yns gans reson ha kowses hag y tal dhedha omdhon an eyl orth y gila yn spyrys a vrederedh.
Welsh: Genir pawb yn rhydd ac yn gydradd â'i gilydd mewn urddas a hawliau. Fe'u cynysgaeddir â rheswm a chydwybod, a dylai pawb ymddwyn y naill at y llall mewn ysbryd cymodlon.
Possible Celtic languages
Languages that have been suggested as possibly Celtic:
Pictish was for a long time thought to be a pre-Celtic, non-Indo-European language of Scotland. It is now generally accepted as Celtic.[citation needed]
Lusitanian was spoken in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers in what is now Portugal and part of Spain. It is known only by five inscriptions, together with various place names.[48] It is an Indo-European language and some scholars have proposed that it may be a para-Celtic language that evolved alongside Celtic and is in a dialectal continuum with Tartessian and Gallaecian. This is tied to a theory of an Iberian origin for the Celtic languages.[48][49][50] Other scholars see affinities with Italic and Old European.[51][52]
Gallaecian, thought to be spoken from around 500 BC until the Late Classical period in the Northwest quarter of the Iberian Peninsula, including Northern Portugal and Galicia. It is known from only a few stone inscriptions using the Latin alphabet. It often considered a proper Celtic language, spoken by Celtic settlers who migrated to Iberia in the 5th Century before Christ, as opposed to its distantly related cousin, the Lusitanian Language, which was most likely a proto-Celtic language, brought to Western Iberia by the earliest Indo-European settlers to arrive in this corner of Europe.
Tartessian, spoken in the south-west of the Iberia Peninsula.[53] Tartessian is known by 95 inscriptions with the longest having 82 readable signs.[49][54][55] It is not known to be Indo-European and is generally left unclassified. However, John T. Koch argues that Tartessian was a Celtic language.
^Beresford Ellis, Peter (1990, 1998, 2005). The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 20–22. ISBN0-85025-371-3. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
^"Irish Examiner". Archives.tcm.ie. 24 November 2004. Retrieved 19 August 2011.
^Christina Bratt Paulston. Linguistic Minorities in Multilingual Settings: Implications for Language Policies. J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 81. ISBN1-55619-347-5.
^Pierce, David (2000). Irish Writing in the Twentieth Century. Cork University Press. p. 1140. ISBN1-85918-208-9.
^ abSchumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 84–87. ISBN3-85124-692-6.
^Prósper, B.M. (2002). Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la península ibérica. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 422–27. ISBN84-7800-818-7.
^Villar F., B. M. Prósper. (2005). Vascos, Celtas e Indoeuropeos: genes y lenguas. Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pgs. 333–350. ISBN # 84-7800-530-7.
^Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that there were two Pictish languages, a pre-Indo-European one and a Pritenic Celtic one. This has been challenged by some scholars. See Katherine Forsyth's "Language in Pictland: the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'" Template:PDFlink. See also the introduction by James & Taylor to the "Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W. J. Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'"Template:PDFlink. Compare also the treatment of Pictish in Price's The Languages of Britain (1984) with his Languages in Britain & Ireland (2000).
^Rexova, K. (2003). "Cladistic analysis of languages: Indo-European classification based on lexicostatistical data". Cladistics. 19 (2): 120–127. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00299.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^Forster, Peter; Toth, Alfred (2003). "Toward a phylogenetic chronology of ancient Gaulish, Celtic, and Indo-European". The National Academy of Sciences. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN0224024957.
^James, Simon (1999). The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People or Modern Invention?. London: British Museum Press. ISBN0714121657.
^The inscription of Cabeço das Fráguas revisited. Lusitanian and Alteuropäisch populations in the West of the Iberian Peninsula Transactions of the Philological Society vol. 97 (2003)
^Koch, John T (2010). Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK. pp. 292–293. ISBN978-1-84217-410-4.
Ball, Martin J. & James Fife (ed.) (1993). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01035-7.
Borsley, Robert D. & Ian Roberts (ed.) (1996). The Syntax of the Celtic Languages: A Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521481600.
Cowgill, Warren (1975). "The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings". In H. Rix (ed.). Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973. Wiesbaden: Reichert. pp. 40–70. ISBN3-920153-40-5.
Celtic Linguistics, 1700–1850 (2000). London; New York: Routledge. 8 vols comprising 15 texts originally published between 1706 and 1844.
Hindley, Reg (1990). The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. Routledge. ISBN0-415-04339-5.
Lewis, Henry & Holger Pedersen (1989). A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-26102-0.
McCone, Kim (1991). "The PIE stops and syllabic nasals in Celtic". Studia Celtica Japonica. 4: 37–69.
McCone, Kim (1992). "Relative Chronologie: Keltisch". In R. Beekes, A. Lubotsky, and J. Weitenberg (eds.) (ed.). Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten Der VIII. Fachtagung Der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden, 31 August – 4 September 1987. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 12–39. ISBN3-85124-613-6. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
McCone, K. (1996). Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change. Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College. ISBN0-901519-40-5.
Russell, Paul (1995). An Introduction to the Celtic Languages. Longman. ISBN0582100828.
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