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Groundwater depletion is a concern in some areas because of sustainability issues (and in some cases, land subsidence and/or [[saltwater intrusion]]).<ref>Konikow, L. W. 2013. Groundwater depletion in the United States (1900-2008). [[United States Geological Survey]]. Scientific Investigations Report 2013-5079. 63 pp.</ref> A particularly important North American example of depletion is the High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer, which underlies about 174,000 square miles in parts of eight states of the USA and supplies 30 percent of the groundwater withdrawn for irrigation there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HA 730-C High Plains aquifer. Ground Water Atlas of the United States. Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_c/C-text5.html |access-date=2018-10-13 |website=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Some irrigated livestock feed production is not hydrologically sustainable in the long run because of aquifer depletion. [[Rainfed agriculture]], which cannot deplete its water source, produces much of the livestock feed in North America. Corn (maize) is of particular interest, accounting for about 91.8% of the grain fed to US livestock and poultry in 2010.<ref name="USDA2011">USDA. 2011. USDA Agricultural Statistics 2011.</ref>{{rp|table 1–75}} About 14 percent of US corn-for-grain land is irrigated, accounting for about 17% of US corn-for-grain production and 13% of US irrigation water use,<ref>USDA 2010. 2007 Census of agriculture. AC07-SS-1. Farm and ranch irrigation survey (2008). Volume 3, Special Studies. Part 1. (Issued 2009, updated 2010.) 209 pp. + appendices. Tables 1 and 28.</ref><ref name="USDA2009">USDA. 2009. 2007 Census of Agriculture. United States Summary and State Data. Vol. 1. Geographic Area Series. Part 51. AC-07-A-51. 639 pp. + appendices. Table 1.</ref> but only about 40% of US corn grain is fed to US livestock and poultry.<ref name="USDA2011" />{{rp|table 1–38}} Irrigation accounts for about 37% of US withdrawn freshwater use, and groundwater provides about 42% of US irrigation water.<ref name="Kenny2009" /> Irrigation water applied in the production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent of withdrawn freshwater use in the United States.<ref>Zering, K. D., T. J. Centner, D. Meyer, G. L. Newton, J. M. Sweeten and S. Woodruff.2012. Water and land issues associated with animal agriculture: a U.S. perspective. CAST Issue Paper No. 50. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa. 24 pp.</ref> |
Groundwater depletion is a concern in some areas because of sustainability issues (and in some cases, land subsidence and/or [[saltwater intrusion]]).<ref>Konikow, L. W. 2013. Groundwater depletion in the United States (1900-2008). [[United States Geological Survey]]. Scientific Investigations Report 2013-5079. 63 pp.</ref> A particularly important North American example of depletion is the High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer, which underlies about 174,000 square miles in parts of eight states of the USA and supplies 30 percent of the groundwater withdrawn for irrigation there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HA 730-C High Plains aquifer. Ground Water Atlas of the United States. Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_c/C-text5.html |access-date=2018-10-13 |website=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Some irrigated livestock feed production is not hydrologically sustainable in the long run because of aquifer depletion. [[Rainfed agriculture]], which cannot deplete its water source, produces much of the livestock feed in North America. Corn (maize) is of particular interest, accounting for about 91.8% of the grain fed to US livestock and poultry in 2010.<ref name="USDA2011">USDA. 2011. USDA Agricultural Statistics 2011.</ref>{{rp|table 1–75}} About 14 percent of US corn-for-grain land is irrigated, accounting for about 17% of US corn-for-grain production and 13% of US irrigation water use,<ref>USDA 2010. 2007 Census of agriculture. AC07-SS-1. Farm and ranch irrigation survey (2008). Volume 3, Special Studies. Part 1. (Issued 2009, updated 2010.) 209 pp. + appendices. Tables 1 and 28.</ref><ref name="USDA2009">USDA. 2009. 2007 Census of Agriculture. United States Summary and State Data. Vol. 1. Geographic Area Series. Part 51. AC-07-A-51. 639 pp. + appendices. Table 1.</ref> but only about 40% of US corn grain is fed to US livestock and poultry.<ref name="USDA2011" />{{rp|table 1–38}} Irrigation accounts for about 37% of US withdrawn freshwater use, and groundwater provides about 42% of US irrigation water.<ref name="Kenny2009" /> Irrigation water applied in the production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent of withdrawn freshwater use in the United States.<ref>Zering, K. D., T. J. Centner, D. Meyer, G. L. Newton, J. M. Sweeten and S. Woodruff.2012. Water and land issues associated with animal agriculture: a U.S. perspective. CAST Issue Paper No. 50. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa. 24 pp.</ref> |
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Almost one-third of the water used in the western United States goes to crops that feed cattle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richter |first1=Brian D. |last2=Bartak |first2=Dominique |last3=Caldwell |first3=Peter |last4=Davis |first4=Kyle Frankel |last5=Debaere |first5=Peter |last6=Hoekstra |first6=Arjen Y. |last7=Li |first7=Tianshu |last8=Marston |first8=Landon |last9=McManamay |first9=Ryan |last10=Mekonnen |first10=Mesfin M. |last11=Ruddell |first11=Benjamin L. |date=2020-03-02 |title=Water scarcity and fish imperilment driven by beef production |url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-0483-z |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0483-z |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=211730442}}</ref> This is despite the claim that withdrawn surface water and groundwater used for crop [[irrigation]] in the US exceeds that for livestock by about a ratio of 60:1.<ref name="Kenny2009">Kenny, J. F. et al. 2009. [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/pdf/c1344.pdf Estimated use of water in the United States in 2005], ''[[United States Geological Survey|US Geological Survey]] Circular'' 1344. 52 pp.</ref> This excessive use of river water distresses ecosystems and communities, and drives scores of species of fish closer to [[extinction]] during times of drought.<ref>{{cite news |last=Borunda |first=Alejandra |date=March 2, 2020 |title=How beef eaters in cities are draining rivers in the American West |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/burger-water-shortages-colorado-river-western-us/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303025435/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/burger-water-shortages-colorado-river-western-us/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 3, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}</ref> |
Almost one-third of the water used in the western United States goes to crops that feed cattle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richter |first1=Brian D. |last2=Bartak |first2=Dominique |last3=Caldwell |first3=Peter |last4=Davis |first4=Kyle Frankel |last5=Debaere |first5=Peter |last6=Hoekstra |first6=Arjen Y. |last7=Li |first7=Tianshu |last8=Marston |first8=Landon |last9=McManamay |first9=Ryan |last10=Mekonnen |first10=Mesfin M. |last11=Ruddell |first11=Benjamin L. |date=2020-03-02 |title=Water scarcity and fish imperilment driven by beef production |url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-0483-z |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0483-z |bibcode=2020NatSu...3..319R |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=211730442}}</ref> This is despite the claim that withdrawn surface water and groundwater used for crop [[irrigation]] in the US exceeds that for livestock by about a ratio of 60:1.<ref name="Kenny2009">Kenny, J. F. et al. 2009. [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/pdf/c1344.pdf Estimated use of water in the United States in 2005], ''[[United States Geological Survey|US Geological Survey]] Circular'' 1344. 52 pp.</ref> This excessive use of river water distresses ecosystems and communities, and drives scores of species of fish closer to [[extinction]] during times of drought.<ref>{{cite news |last=Borunda |first=Alejandra |date=March 2, 2020 |title=How beef eaters in cities are draining rivers in the American West |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/burger-water-shortages-colorado-river-western-us/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303025435/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/burger-water-shortages-colorado-river-western-us/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 3, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}</ref> |
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A 2023 study found that a [[vegan]] diet reduced water usage by 54%.<ref name="Carrington-2023" /> |
A 2023 study found that a [[vegan]] diet reduced water usage by 54%.<ref name="Carrington-2023" /> |
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A study in 2019 focused on linkages between water usage and animal agricultural practices in China.<ref name="Xiao-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Zhengyan |last2=Yao |first2=Meiqin |last3=Tang |first3=Xiaotong |last4=Sun |first4=Luxi |date=2019-01-01 |title=Identifying critical supply chains: An input-output analysis for Food-Energy-Water Nexus in China |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.006 |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=392 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.006 |s2cid=92222220 |issn=0304-3800}}</ref> The results of the study showed that water resources were being used primarily for animal agriculture; the highest categories were animal husbandry, agriculture, slaughtering and processing of meat, fisheries, and other foods. Together they accounted for the consumption of over 2400 billion m<sup>3</sup> embodied water, roughly equating to 40% of total embodied{{clarify|date=May 2023}} water by the whole system.<ref name="Xiao-2019" /> This means that more than one-third of China's entire water consumption is being used for food processing purposes, and mostly for animal agricultural practices. |
A study in 2019 focused on linkages between water usage and animal agricultural practices in China.<ref name="Xiao-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Zhengyan |last2=Yao |first2=Meiqin |last3=Tang |first3=Xiaotong |last4=Sun |first4=Luxi |date=2019-01-01 |title=Identifying critical supply chains: An input-output analysis for Food-Energy-Water Nexus in China |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.006 |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=392 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.006 |bibcode=2019EcMod.392...31X |s2cid=92222220 |issn=0304-3800}}</ref> The results of the study showed that water resources were being used primarily for animal agriculture; the highest categories were animal husbandry, agriculture, slaughtering and processing of meat, fisheries, and other foods. Together they accounted for the consumption of over 2400 billion m<sup>3</sup> embodied water, roughly equating to 40% of total embodied{{clarify|date=May 2023}} water by the whole system.<ref name="Xiao-2019" /> This means that more than one-third of China's entire water consumption is being used for food processing purposes, and mostly for animal agricultural practices. |
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|+Estimated water requirements for various foods<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fabrique [merken |first=design & interactie |title=Water footprint of crop and animal products: a comparison |url=https://www.waterfootprint.org/time-for-action/what-can-consumers-do/#cropvanimal/ |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=waterfootprint.org |language=en}}</ref> |
|+Estimated water requirements for various foods<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fabrique [merken |first=design & interactie |title=Water footprint of crop and animal products: a comparison |url=https://www.waterfootprint.org/time-for-action/what-can-consumers-do/#cropvanimal/ |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=waterfootprint.org |language=en}}</ref> |
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A 2023 study found that a [[vegan]] diet reduced water pollution by 75%.<ref name="Carrington-2023" />[[File:River algae Sichuan.jpg|thumb|A green algae bloom has been observed in Sichuan, China. In normal conditions, river water is transparent, but algae blooms result in green algae covering the surface. This prevents other plants at the bottom of the river from getting sunlight, causing them to lose their ability to photosynthesise. Oxygen levels in rivers fall when there is no other vegetation, resulting in the death of other species.]]Effective use of [[fertilizer]] is crucial to accelerate the growth of animal feed production, which in turn increases the amount of feed available for livestock.<ref name="Zhou 2010 80–102">{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yuan |last2=Yang |first2=Hong |last3=Mosler |first3=Hans-Joachim |last4=Abbaspour |first4=Karim C. |date=2010 |title=Factors affecting farmers' decisions on fertilizer use: A case study for the Chaobai watershed in Northern China |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26167133 |journal=Consilience |issue=4 |pages=80–102 |jstor=26167133 |issn=1948-3074}}</ref> However, excess fertilizer can enter water bodies via runoff after rainfall, resulting in [[eutrophication]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=HERNÁNDEZ |first1=DANIEL L. |last2=VALLANO |first2=DENA M. |last3=ZAVALETA |first3=ERIKA S. |last4=TZANKOVA |first4=ZDRAVKA |last5=PASARI |first5=JAE R. |last6=WEISS |first6=STUART |last7=SELMANTS |first7=PAUL C. |last8=MOROZUMI |first8=CORINNE |date=2016 |title=Nitrogen Pollution Is Linked to US Listed Species Declines |journal=BioScience |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=213–222 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biw003 |jstor=90007566 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }}</ref> The addition of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause the rapid growth of algae, also known as an [[Algal bloom|algae bloom]]. The reduction of oxygen and nutrients in the water caused by the growth of algae ultimately leads to the death of other species in the [[ecosystem]]. This ecological harm has consequences not only for the native animals in the affected water body but also for the water supply for people.<ref name="Zhou 2010 80–102" /> |
A 2023 study found that a [[vegan]] diet reduced water pollution by 75%.<ref name="Carrington-2023" />[[File:River algae Sichuan.jpg|thumb|A green algae bloom has been observed in Sichuan, China. In normal conditions, river water is transparent, but algae blooms result in green algae covering the surface. This prevents other plants at the bottom of the river from getting sunlight, causing them to lose their ability to photosynthesise. Oxygen levels in rivers fall when there is no other vegetation, resulting in the death of other species.]]Effective use of [[fertilizer]] is crucial to accelerate the growth of animal feed production, which in turn increases the amount of feed available for livestock.<ref name="Zhou 2010 80–102">{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yuan |last2=Yang |first2=Hong |last3=Mosler |first3=Hans-Joachim |last4=Abbaspour |first4=Karim C. |date=2010 |title=Factors affecting farmers' decisions on fertilizer use: A case study for the Chaobai watershed in Northern China |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26167133 |journal=Consilience |issue=4 |pages=80–102 |jstor=26167133 |issn=1948-3074}}</ref> However, excess fertilizer can enter water bodies via runoff after rainfall, resulting in [[eutrophication]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=HERNÁNDEZ |first1=DANIEL L. |last2=VALLANO |first2=DENA M. |last3=ZAVALETA |first3=ERIKA S. |last4=TZANKOVA |first4=ZDRAVKA |last5=PASARI |first5=JAE R. |last6=WEISS |first6=STUART |last7=SELMANTS |first7=PAUL C. |last8=MOROZUMI |first8=CORINNE |date=2016 |title=Nitrogen Pollution Is Linked to US Listed Species Declines |journal=BioScience |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=213–222 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biw003 |jstor=90007566 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }}</ref> The addition of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause the rapid growth of algae, also known as an [[Algal bloom|algae bloom]]. The reduction of oxygen and nutrients in the water caused by the growth of algae ultimately leads to the death of other species in the [[ecosystem]]. This ecological harm has consequences not only for the native animals in the affected water body but also for the water supply for people.<ref name="Zhou 2010 80–102" /> |
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To dispose of animal waste and other pollutants, animal production farms often spray manure (often contaminated with potentially toxic bacteria) onto empty fields, called "spray-fields", via sprinkler systems. The toxins within these spray-fields oftentimes run into creeks, ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water, contaminating bodies of water. This process has also led to the contamination of drinking water reserves, harming the environment and citizens alike.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Berger |first=Jamie |date=2022-04-01 |title=How Black North Carolinians pay the price for the |
To dispose of animal waste and other pollutants, animal production farms often spray manure (often contaminated with potentially toxic bacteria) onto empty fields, called "spray-fields", via sprinkler systems. The toxins within these spray-fields oftentimes run into creeks, ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water, contaminating bodies of water. This process has also led to the contamination of drinking water reserves, harming the environment and citizens alike.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Berger |first=Jamie |date=2022-04-01 |title=How Black North Carolinians pay the price for the world's cheap bacon |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/23003487/north-carolina-hog-pork-bacon-farms-environmental-racism-black-residents-pollution-meat-industry |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> |
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=== Air pollution === |
=== Air pollution === |
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{{Bar chart|title=Mean [[Acid rain|acidifying emissions]] (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein<ref name="Nemecek 987–992">{{Cite journal|last1=Nemecek|first1=T.|last2=Poore|first2=J.|date=2018-06-01|title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers|journal=Science|volume=360|issue=6392|pages=987–992|doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216|issn=0036-8075|pmid=29853680|bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P|doi-access=free}}</ref>|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Acidifying Emissions (g SO<sub>2</sub>eq per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=300.6|label1=[[Beef]]|data1=343.6|label2=[[Cheese]]|data2=165.5|label3=[[Pork]]|data3=142.7|label4=[[Lamb and mutton|Lamb and Mutton]]|data4=139.0|label5=[[Aquaculture|Farmed Crustaceans]]|data5=133.1|label6=[[Poultry]]|data6=102.4|label7=[[Aquaculture|Farmed Fish]]|data7=65.9|label8=[[Egg as food|Eggs]]|data8=53.7|label9=[[Faboideae|Groundnuts]]|data9=22.6|label10=[[Peas]]|data10=8.5|label11=[[Tofu]]|data11=6.7|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}} |
{{Bar chart|title=Mean [[Acid rain|acidifying emissions]] (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein<ref name="Nemecek 987–992">{{Cite journal|last1=Nemecek|first1=T.|last2=Poore|first2=J.|date=2018-06-01|title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers|journal=Science|volume=360|issue=6392|pages=987–992|doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216|issn=0036-8075|pmid=29853680|bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P|doi-access=free}}</ref>|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Acidifying Emissions (g SO<sub>2</sub>eq per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=300.6|label1=[[Beef]]|data1=343.6|label2=[[Cheese]]|data2=165.5|label3=[[Pork]]|data3=142.7|label4=[[Lamb and mutton|Lamb and Mutton]]|data4=139.0|label5=[[Aquaculture|Farmed Crustaceans]]|data5=133.1|label6=[[Poultry]]|data6=102.4|label7=[[Aquaculture|Farmed Fish]]|data7=65.9|label8=[[Egg as food|Eggs]]|data8=53.7|label9=[[Faboideae|Groundnuts]]|data9=22.6|label10=[[Peas]]|data10=8.5|label11=[[Tofu]]|data11=6.7|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}} |
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Animal agriculture is a cause of harmful [[Particulates|particulate matter]] pollution in the atmosphere. This type of production chain produces byproducts; endotoxin, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and particulate matter (PM), such as dust,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merchant |first1=James A. |last2=Naleway |first2=Allison L. |last3=Svendsen |first3=Erik R. |last4=Kelly |first4=Kevin M. |last5=Burmeister |first5=Leon F. |last6=Stromquist |first6=Ann M. |last7=Taylor |first7=Craig D. |last8=Thorne |first8=Peter S. |last9=Reynolds |first9=Stephen J. |last10=Sanderson |first10=Wayne T. |last11=Chrischilles |first11=Elizabeth A. |year=2005 |title=Asthma and Farm Exposures in a Cohort of Rural Iowa Children |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=350–356 |doi=10.1289/ehp.7240 |pmc=1253764 |pmid=15743727}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Borrell |first=Brendan |date=December 3, 2018 |title=In California's Fertile Valley, a Bumper Crop of Air Pollution |url=https://undark.org/article/air-pollution-california/ |access-date=2019-09-27 |website=Undark |language=en-US}}</ref> all of which can negatively impact human respiratory health.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Viegas |first1=S. |last2=Faísca |first2=V. M. |last3=Dias |first3=H. |last4=Clérigo |first4=A. |last5=Carolino |first5=E. |last6=Viegas |first6=C. |year=2013 |title=Occupational Exposure to Poultry Dust and Effects on the Respiratory System in Workers |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A |volume=76 |issue=4–5 |pages=230–239 |doi=10.1080/15287394.2013.757199 |pmid=23514065 |s2cid=22558834}}</ref> Furthermore, [[Methane emissions|methane]] and {{CO2}}—the primary greenhouse gas emissions associated with meat production—have also been associated with respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, and COPD.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Maureen |last2=Bruzzese |first2=Jean-Marie |last3=Matura |first3=Lea Ann |year=2017 |title=Climate Change Effects on Respiratory Health: Implications for Nursing |journal=Journal of Nursing Scholarship |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=644–652 |doi=10.1111/jnu.12330 |pmid=28806469 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
Animal agriculture is a cause of harmful [[Particulates|particulate matter]] pollution in the atmosphere. This type of production chain produces byproducts; endotoxin, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and particulate matter (PM), such as dust,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merchant |first1=James A. |last2=Naleway |first2=Allison L. |last3=Svendsen |first3=Erik R. |last4=Kelly |first4=Kevin M. |last5=Burmeister |first5=Leon F. |last6=Stromquist |first6=Ann M. |last7=Taylor |first7=Craig D. |last8=Thorne |first8=Peter S. |last9=Reynolds |first9=Stephen J. |last10=Sanderson |first10=Wayne T. |last11=Chrischilles |first11=Elizabeth A. |year=2005 |title=Asthma and Farm Exposures in a Cohort of Rural Iowa Children |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=350–356 |doi=10.1289/ehp.7240 |pmc=1253764 |pmid=15743727}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Borrell |first=Brendan |date=December 3, 2018 |title=In California's Fertile Valley, a Bumper Crop of Air Pollution |url=https://undark.org/article/air-pollution-california/ |access-date=2019-09-27 |website=Undark |language=en-US}}</ref> all of which can negatively impact human respiratory health.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Viegas |first1=S. |last2=Faísca |first2=V. M. |last3=Dias |first3=H. |last4=Clérigo |first4=A. |last5=Carolino |first5=E. |last6=Viegas |first6=C. |year=2013 |title=Occupational Exposure to Poultry Dust and Effects on the Respiratory System in Workers |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A |volume=76 |issue=4–5 |pages=230–239 |doi=10.1080/15287394.2013.757199 |pmid=23514065 |bibcode=2013JTEHA..76..230V |s2cid=22558834}}</ref> Furthermore, [[Methane emissions|methane]] and {{CO2}}—the primary greenhouse gas emissions associated with meat production—have also been associated with respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, and COPD.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Maureen |last2=Bruzzese |first2=Jean-Marie |last3=Matura |first3=Lea Ann |year=2017 |title=Climate Change Effects on Respiratory Health: Implications for Nursing |journal=Journal of Nursing Scholarship |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=644–652 |doi=10.1111/jnu.12330 |pmid=28806469 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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A study found that [[concentrated animal feeding operation]]s (CAFOs) could increase perceived asthma-like symptoms for residents within 500 meters.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Radon |first1=Katja |last2=Schulze |first2=Anja |last3=Ehrenstein |first3=Vera |last4=Van Strien |first4=Rob T. |last5=Praml |first5=Georg |last6=Nowak |first6=Dennis |year=2007 |title=Environmental Exposure to Confined Animal Feeding Operations and Respiratory Health of Neighboring Residents |journal=Epidemiology |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=300–308 |doi=10.1097/01.ede.0000259966.62137.84 |pmid=17435437 |s2cid=15905956|doi-access=free }}</ref> Concentrated hog feeding operations release air pollutants from confinement buildings, manure holding pits, and land application of waste. Air pollutants from these operations have caused acute physical symptoms, such as respiratory illnesses, wheezing, increased breath rate, and irritation of the eyes and nose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schinasi |first1=Leah |last2=Horton |first2=Rachel Avery |last3=Guidry |first3=Virginia T. |last4=Wing |first4=Steve |last5=Marshall |first5=Stephen W. |last6=Morland |first6=Kimberly B. |year=2011 |title=Air Pollution, Lung Function, and Physical Symptoms in Communities Near Concentrated Swine Feeding Operations |journal=Epidemiology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=208–215 |doi=10.1097/ede.0b013e3182093c8b |pmc=5800517 |pmid=21228696}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mirabelli |first1=M. C. |last2=Wing |first2=S. |last3=Marshall |first3=S. W. |last4=Wilcosky |first4=T. C. |year=2006 |title=Asthma Symptoms Among Adolescents Who Attend Public Schools That Are Located Near Confined Swine Feeding Operations |journal=Pediatrics |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=e66–e75 |doi=10.1542/peds.2005-2812 |pmc=4517575 |pmid=16818539}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pavilonis |first1=Brian T. |last2=Sanderson |first2=Wayne T. |last3=Merchant |first3=James A. |year=2013 |title=Relative exposure to swine animal feeding operations and childhood asthma prevalence in an agricultural cohort |journal=Environmental Research |volume=122 |pages=74–80 |bibcode=2013ER....122...74P |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2012.12.008 |pmc=3980580 |pmid=23332647}}</ref> That prolonged exposure to airborne animal particulate, such as swine dust, induces a large influx of inflammatory cells into the airways.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Suur |first1=C. |last2=Larsson |first2=K. |last3=Malmberg |first3=P. |last4=Larsson |first4=P.H. |year=1997 |title=Increased number of activated lymphocytes in human lung following swine dust inhalation |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=376–380 |doi=10.1183/09031936.97.10020376 |pmid=9042635 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Those in close proximity to CAFOs could be exposed to elevated levels of these byproducts, which may lead to poor health and respiratory outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carrie |first=Hribar |date=2010 |title=Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations and Their Impact on Communities |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/docs/understanding_cafos_nalboh.pdf |journal=2010 National Association of Local Boards of Health |via=Centres for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Additionally, since CAFOs tend to be located in primarily rural and low-income communities, low-income people are disproportionately affected by these environmental health consequences. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637958/] |
A study found that [[concentrated animal feeding operation]]s (CAFOs) could increase perceived asthma-like symptoms for residents within 500 meters.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Radon |first1=Katja |last2=Schulze |first2=Anja |last3=Ehrenstein |first3=Vera |last4=Van Strien |first4=Rob T. |last5=Praml |first5=Georg |last6=Nowak |first6=Dennis |year=2007 |title=Environmental Exposure to Confined Animal Feeding Operations and Respiratory Health of Neighboring Residents |journal=Epidemiology |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=300–308 |doi=10.1097/01.ede.0000259966.62137.84 |pmid=17435437 |s2cid=15905956|doi-access=free }}</ref> Concentrated hog feeding operations release air pollutants from confinement buildings, manure holding pits, and land application of waste. Air pollutants from these operations have caused acute physical symptoms, such as respiratory illnesses, wheezing, increased breath rate, and irritation of the eyes and nose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schinasi |first1=Leah |last2=Horton |first2=Rachel Avery |last3=Guidry |first3=Virginia T. |last4=Wing |first4=Steve |last5=Marshall |first5=Stephen W. |last6=Morland |first6=Kimberly B. |year=2011 |title=Air Pollution, Lung Function, and Physical Symptoms in Communities Near Concentrated Swine Feeding Operations |journal=Epidemiology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=208–215 |doi=10.1097/ede.0b013e3182093c8b |pmc=5800517 |pmid=21228696}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mirabelli |first1=M. C. |last2=Wing |first2=S. |last3=Marshall |first3=S. W. |last4=Wilcosky |first4=T. C. |year=2006 |title=Asthma Symptoms Among Adolescents Who Attend Public Schools That Are Located Near Confined Swine Feeding Operations |journal=Pediatrics |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=e66–e75 |doi=10.1542/peds.2005-2812 |pmc=4517575 |pmid=16818539}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pavilonis |first1=Brian T. |last2=Sanderson |first2=Wayne T. |last3=Merchant |first3=James A. |year=2013 |title=Relative exposure to swine animal feeding operations and childhood asthma prevalence in an agricultural cohort |journal=Environmental Research |volume=122 |pages=74–80 |bibcode=2013ER....122...74P |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2012.12.008 |pmc=3980580 |pmid=23332647}}</ref> That prolonged exposure to airborne animal particulate, such as swine dust, induces a large influx of inflammatory cells into the airways.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Suur |first1=C. |last2=Larsson |first2=K. |last3=Malmberg |first3=P. |last4=Larsson |first4=P.H. |year=1997 |title=Increased number of activated lymphocytes in human lung following swine dust inhalation |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=376–380 |doi=10.1183/09031936.97.10020376 |pmid=9042635 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Those in close proximity to CAFOs could be exposed to elevated levels of these byproducts, which may lead to poor health and respiratory outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carrie |first=Hribar |date=2010 |title=Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations and Their Impact on Communities |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/docs/understanding_cafos_nalboh.pdf |journal=2010 National Association of Local Boards of Health |via=Centres for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> Additionally, since CAFOs tend to be located in primarily rural and low-income communities, low-income people are disproportionately affected by these environmental health consequences. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637958/] |
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=== Energy consumption === |
=== Energy consumption === |
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[[File:Energy efficiency of meat and dairy production, OWID.svg|thumb|400px|Energy efficiency of meat and dairy production]] |
[[File:Energy efficiency of meat and dairy production, OWID.svg|thumb|400px|Energy efficiency of meat and dairy production]] |
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An important aspect of energy use in livestock production is the energy consumption that the animals contribute. Feed Conversion Ratio is an animal's ability to convert feed into meat. The Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) is calculated by taking the energy, protein, or mass input of the feed divided by the output of meat provided by the animal. A lower FCR corresponds with a smaller requirement of feed per meat output, and therefore the animal contributes less GHG emissions. Chickens and pigs usually have a lower FCR compared to ruminants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Röös |first1=Elin |last2=Sundberg |first2=Cecilia |last3=Tidåker |first3=Pernilla |last4=Strid |first4=Ingrid |last5=Hansson |first5=Per-Anders |date=2013-01-01 |title=Can carbon footprint serve as an indicator of the environmental impact of meat production? |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=24 |pages=573–581 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.08.004}}</ref> |
An important aspect of energy use in livestock production is the energy consumption that the animals contribute. Feed Conversion Ratio is an animal's ability to convert feed into meat. The Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) is calculated by taking the energy, protein, or mass input of the feed divided by the output of meat provided by the animal. A lower FCR corresponds with a smaller requirement of feed per meat output, and therefore the animal contributes less GHG emissions. Chickens and pigs usually have a lower FCR compared to ruminants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Röös |first1=Elin |last2=Sundberg |first2=Cecilia |last3=Tidåker |first3=Pernilla |last4=Strid |first4=Ingrid |last5=Hansson |first5=Per-Anders |date=2013-01-01 |title=Can carbon footprint serve as an indicator of the environmental impact of meat production? |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=24 |pages=573–581 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.08.004|bibcode=2013EcInd..24..573R }}</ref> |
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Intensification and other changes in the livestock industries influence energy use, emissions, and other environmental effects of meat production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capper |first1=J. L. |year=2011 |title=The environmental impact of beef production in the United States: 1977 compared with 2007. |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=89 |issue=12 |pages=4249–4261 |doi=10.2527/jas.2010-3784 |pmid=21803973 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
Intensification and other changes in the livestock industries influence energy use, emissions, and other environmental effects of meat production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capper |first1=J. L. |year=2011 |title=The environmental impact of beef production in the United States: 1977 compared with 2007. |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=89 |issue=12 |pages=4249–4261 |doi=10.2527/jas.2010-3784 |pmid=21803973 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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[[Climate change mitigation|Mitigation options]] for reducing methane emission from livestock include a change in diet, that is consuming less meat and dairy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Poore |first1=J. |last2=Nemecek |first2=T. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6392 |pages=987–992 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P |doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=29853680 |s2cid=206664954|doi-access=free }}</ref> A significant reduction in meat consumption will be essential to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century.<ref name="Carrington-2018" /> A 2019 report in ''[[The Lancet]]'' recommended that global meat consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gibbens |first=Sarah |date=January 16, 2019 |title=Eating meat has 'dire' consequences for the planet, says report |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117010915/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 17, 2019 |access-date=January 21, 2019}}</ref> A study [[Carbon dioxide removal|quantified]] climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and [[Restoration ecology|restoration]] of the spared land, finding that if these were combined they could "reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61%".<ref>{{cite news |title=How plant-based diets not only reduce our carbon footprint, but also increase carbon capture |language=en |work=[[Leiden University]] |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-01-plant-based-diets-carbon-footprint-capture.html |access-date=14 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Zhongxiao |last2=Scherer |first2=Laura |last3=Tukker |first3=Arnold |last4=Spawn-Lee |first4=Seth A. |last5=Bruckner |first5=Martin |last6=Gibbs |first6=Holly K. |last7=Behrens |first7=Paul |date=January 2022 |title=Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207 |journal=Nature Food |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5 |pmid=37118487 |issn=2662-1355 |s2cid=245867412 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> |
[[Climate change mitigation|Mitigation options]] for reducing methane emission from livestock include a change in diet, that is consuming less meat and dairy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Poore |first1=J. |last2=Nemecek |first2=T. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6392 |pages=987–992 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P |doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=29853680 |s2cid=206664954|doi-access=free }}</ref> A significant reduction in meat consumption will be essential to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century.<ref name="Carrington-2018" /> A 2019 report in ''[[The Lancet]]'' recommended that global meat consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gibbens |first=Sarah |date=January 16, 2019 |title=Eating meat has 'dire' consequences for the planet, says report |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117010915/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 17, 2019 |access-date=January 21, 2019}}</ref> A study [[Carbon dioxide removal|quantified]] climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and [[Restoration ecology|restoration]] of the spared land, finding that if these were combined they could "reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61%".<ref>{{cite news |title=How plant-based diets not only reduce our carbon footprint, but also increase carbon capture |language=en |work=[[Leiden University]] |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-01-plant-based-diets-carbon-footprint-capture.html |access-date=14 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Zhongxiao |last2=Scherer |first2=Laura |last3=Tukker |first3=Arnold |last4=Spawn-Lee |first4=Seth A. |last5=Bruckner |first5=Martin |last6=Gibbs |first6=Holly K. |last7=Behrens |first7=Paul |date=January 2022 |title=Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207 |journal=Nature Food |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5 |pmid=37118487 |issn=2662-1355 |s2cid=245867412 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> |
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In addition to reduced consumption, emissions can also be reduced by changes in practice. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs or changing diets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castonguay |first1=Adam C. |last2=Polasky |first2=Stephen |last3=H. Holden |first3=Matthew |last4=Herrero |first4=Mario |last5=Mason-D’Croz |first5=Daniel |last6=Godde |first6=Cecile |last7=Chang |first7=Jinfeng |last8=Gerber |first8=James |last9=Witt |first9=G. Bradd |last10=Game |first10=Edward T. |last11=A. Bryan |first11=Brett |last12=Wintle |first12=Brendan |last13=Lee |first13=Katie |last14=Bal |first14=Payal |last15=McDonald-Madden |first15=Eve |date=March 2023 |title=Navigating sustainability trade-offs in global beef production |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-01017-0 |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=284–294 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-01017-0 |s2cid=255638753 |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> |
In addition to reduced consumption, emissions can also be reduced by changes in practice. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs or changing diets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castonguay |first1=Adam C. |last2=Polasky |first2=Stephen |last3=H. Holden |first3=Matthew |last4=Herrero |first4=Mario |last5=Mason-D’Croz |first5=Daniel |last6=Godde |first6=Cecile |last7=Chang |first7=Jinfeng |last8=Gerber |first8=James |last9=Witt |first9=G. Bradd |last10=Game |first10=Edward T. |last11=A. Bryan |first11=Brett |last12=Wintle |first12=Brendan |last13=Lee |first13=Katie |last14=Bal |first14=Payal |last15=McDonald-Madden |first15=Eve |date=March 2023 |title=Navigating sustainability trade-offs in global beef production |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-01017-0 |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=284–294 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-01017-0 |bibcode=2023NatSu...6..284C |s2cid=255638753 |issn=2398-9629}}</ref> |
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Producers can reduce ruminant enteric fermentation using genetic selection,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics |title=Bovine genomics project at Genome Canada |access-date=2018-11-30 |archive-date=2019-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810023632/https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Canada Is Using Genetics to Make Cows Less Gassy |date=2017-06-09 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524194330/https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/ |archive-date=2023-05-24 |url-status=live |url=https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/}}</ref> immunization, rumen [[defaunation]], competition of methanogenic archaea with [[acetogens]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Joblin |first1=K. N. |year=1999 |title=Ruminal acetogens and their potential to lower ruminant methane emissions |journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural Research |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=1307 |doi=10.1071/AR99004}}</ref> introduction of [[Methanotroph|methanotrophic bacteria]] into the rumen,<ref>[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01137190/document The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parmar |first1=N.R. |last2=Nirmal Kumar |first2=J.I. |last3=Joshi |first3=C.G. |year=2015 |title=Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach |journal=Frontiers in Life Science |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |doi=10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550 |s2cid=89217740}}</ref> diet modification and grazing management, among others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boadi |first1=D |year=2004 |title=Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review |journal=Can. J. Anim. Sci. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=319–335 |doi=10.4141/a03-109 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Martin, C. et al. 2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. ''Animal'' 4 : pp 351-365.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eckard |first1=R. J. |display-authors=etal |year=2010 |title=Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review |journal=Livestock Science |volume=130 |issue=1–3 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010}}</ref> The principal mitigation strategies identified for reduction of agricultural [[nitrous oxide]] emissions are avoiding over-application of [[nitrogen fertilizers]] and adopting suitable [[manure management]] practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dalal |first1=R.C. |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Nitrous oxide emission from Australian agricultural lands and mitigation options: a review |journal=[[Australian Journal of Soil Research]] |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=165–195 |doi=10.1071/sr02064 |s2cid=4498983}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=C. A. M. |last2=Ledgard |first2=S. F. |year=2005 |title=Nitrous oxide emissions from New Zealand agriculture – key sources and mitigation strategies |journal=Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems |volume=72 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1007/s10705-004-7357-z |s2cid=42756018}}</ref> Mitigation strategies for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the livestock sector include adopting more efficient production practices to reduce agricultural pressure for deforestation (such as in Latin America), reducing fossil fuel consumption, and increasing [[carbon sequestration]] [[Soil carbon|in soils]].<ref name="Gerber2013">Gerber, P. J., H. Steinfeld, B. Henderson, A. Mottet, C. Opio, J. Dijkman, A. Falcucci and G. Tempio. 2013. Tackling climate change through livestock - a global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 115 pp.</ref> |
Producers can reduce ruminant enteric fermentation using genetic selection,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics |title=Bovine genomics project at Genome Canada |access-date=2018-11-30 |archive-date=2019-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810023632/https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Canada Is Using Genetics to Make Cows Less Gassy |date=2017-06-09 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524194330/https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/ |archive-date=2023-05-24 |url-status=live |url=https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/}}</ref> immunization, rumen [[defaunation]], competition of methanogenic archaea with [[acetogens]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Joblin |first1=K. N. |year=1999 |title=Ruminal acetogens and their potential to lower ruminant methane emissions |journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural Research |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=1307 |doi=10.1071/AR99004}}</ref> introduction of [[Methanotroph|methanotrophic bacteria]] into the rumen,<ref>[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01137190/document The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parmar |first1=N.R. |last2=Nirmal Kumar |first2=J.I. |last3=Joshi |first3=C.G. |year=2015 |title=Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach |journal=Frontiers in Life Science |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |doi=10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550 |s2cid=89217740}}</ref> diet modification and grazing management, among others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boadi |first1=D |year=2004 |title=Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review |journal=Can. J. Anim. Sci. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=319–335 |doi=10.4141/a03-109 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Martin, C. et al. 2010. Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. ''Animal'' 4 : pp 351-365.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eckard |first1=R. J. |display-authors=etal |year=2010 |title=Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review |journal=Livestock Science |volume=130 |issue=1–3 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010}}</ref> The principal mitigation strategies identified for reduction of agricultural [[nitrous oxide]] emissions are avoiding over-application of [[nitrogen fertilizers]] and adopting suitable [[manure management]] practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dalal |first1=R.C. |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Nitrous oxide emission from Australian agricultural lands and mitigation options: a review |journal=[[Australian Journal of Soil Research]] |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=165–195 |doi=10.1071/sr02064 |s2cid=4498983}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=C. A. M. |last2=Ledgard |first2=S. F. |year=2005 |title=Nitrous oxide emissions from New Zealand agriculture – key sources and mitigation strategies |journal=Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1007/s10705-004-7357-z |bibcode=2005NCyAg..72...77D |s2cid=42756018}}</ref> Mitigation strategies for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the livestock sector include adopting more efficient production practices to reduce agricultural pressure for deforestation (such as in Latin America), reducing fossil fuel consumption, and increasing [[carbon sequestration]] [[Soil carbon|in soils]].<ref name="Gerber2013">Gerber, P. J., H. Steinfeld, B. Henderson, A. Mottet, C. Opio, J. Dijkman, A. Falcucci and G. Tempio. 2013. Tackling climate change through livestock - a global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 115 pp.</ref> |
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Measures that increase state revenues from meat consumption/production could enable the use of these funds [[Research and development#Government expenditures|for related research and development]] and "to cushion social hardships among low-income consumers". Meat and livestock are important sectors of the contemporary socioeconomic system, with livestock value chains [[employment|employing]] an estimated >1.3 billion people.<ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340" /> |
Measures that increase state revenues from meat consumption/production could enable the use of these funds [[Research and development#Government expenditures|for related research and development]] and "to cushion social hardships among low-income consumers". Meat and livestock are important sectors of the contemporary socioeconomic system, with livestock value chains [[employment|employing]] an estimated >1.3 billion people.<ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340" /> |
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Sequestering carbon into soil is currently not feasible to cancel out planet-warming emissions caused by the livestock sector. The global livestock annually emits 135 billion metric tons of carbon, way more than can be returned to the soil.<ref>{{Cite journal | |
Sequestering carbon into soil is currently not feasible to cancel out planet-warming emissions caused by the livestock sector. The global livestock annually emits 135 billion metric tons of carbon, way more than can be returned to the soil.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yue |last2=de Boer |first2=Imke J. M. |last3=Persson |first3=U. Martin |last4=Ripoll-Bosch |first4=Raimon |last5=Cederberg |first5=Christel |last6=Gerber |first6=Pierre J. |last7=Smith |first7=Pete |last8=van Middelaar |first8=Corina E. |date=2023-11-22 |title=Risk to rely on soil carbon sequestration to offset global ruminant emissions |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=7625 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-43452-3 |pmid=37993450 |issn=2041-1723|pmc=10665458 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.7625W }}</ref> Despite of this the idea of sequestering carbon to the soil is currently advocated by livestock industry as well as grassroots groups.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fassler |first=Joe |date=2024-02-01 |title=Research Undermines Claims that Soil Carbon Can Offset Livestock Emissions |url=https://www.desmog.com/2024/02/01/climate-change-livestock-methane-carbon-sequestration-claims/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=DeSmog |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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==Effects on ecosystems== |
==Effects on ecosystems== |
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=== Soils === |
=== Soils === |
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Grazing can have positive or negative effects on rangeland health, depending on management quality,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bilotta |first1=G. S. |title=The impacts of grazing animals on the quality of soils, vegetation, and surface waters in intensively managed grasslands |last2=Brazier |first2=R. E. |last3=Haygarth |first3=P. M. |journal=Adv. Agron |year=2007 |isbn=9780123741073 |series=Advances in Agronomy |volume=94 |pages=237–280 |doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(06)94006-1}}</ref> and grazing can have different effects on different soils<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=K. L. |last2=McKenzie |first2=B. M. |year=2001 |title=Grazing effects on soil physical properties and the consequences for pastures: a review |journal=Austral. J. Exp. Agr. |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=1231–1250 |doi=10.1071/EA00102}}</ref> and different plant communities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milchunas |first1=D. G. |last2=Lauenroth |first2=W. KI. |year=1993 |title=Quantitative effects of grazing on vegetation and soils over a global range of environments |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=327–366 |doi=10.2307/2937150 |jstor=2937150}}</ref> Grazing can sometimes reduce, and other times increase, biodiversity of grassland ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olff |first1=H. |last2=Ritchie |first2=M. E. |year=1998 |title=Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/14659214/1998TrendsEcolEvolOlff.pdf |journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=261–265 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01364-0 |pmid=21238294 |hdl=11370/3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f}}</ref><ref>Environment Canada. 2013. Amended recovery strategy for the Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus urophasianus) in Canada. Species at Risk Act, Recovery Strategy Series. 57 pp.</ref> In beef production, cattle ranching helps preserve and improve the natural environment by maintaining habitats that are well-suited for grazing animals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf}}</ref> Lightly grazed grasslands also tend to have higher biodiversity than overgrazed or non-grazed grasslands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=2016 |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf |access-date=2021-05-15 |website=[[FAO]]}}</ref> |
Grazing can have positive or negative effects on rangeland health, depending on management quality,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bilotta |first1=G. S. |title=The impacts of grazing animals on the quality of soils, vegetation, and surface waters in intensively managed grasslands |last2=Brazier |first2=R. E. |last3=Haygarth |first3=P. M. |journal=Adv. Agron |year=2007 |isbn=9780123741073 |series=Advances in Agronomy |volume=94 |pages=237–280 |doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(06)94006-1}}</ref> and grazing can have different effects on different soils<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=K. L. |last2=McKenzie |first2=B. M. |year=2001 |title=Grazing effects on soil physical properties and the consequences for pastures: a review |journal=Austral. J. Exp. Agr. |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=1231–1250 |doi=10.1071/EA00102}}</ref> and different plant communities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milchunas |first1=D. G. |last2=Lauenroth |first2=W. KI. |year=1993 |title=Quantitative effects of grazing on vegetation and soils over a global range of environments |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=327–366 |doi=10.2307/2937150 |jstor=2937150|bibcode=1993EcoM...63..327M }}</ref> Grazing can sometimes reduce, and other times increase, biodiversity of grassland ecosystems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olff |first1=H. |last2=Ritchie |first2=M. E. |year=1998 |title=Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/14659214/1998TrendsEcolEvolOlff.pdf |journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=261–265 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01364-0 |pmid=21238294 |hdl=11370/3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f}}</ref><ref>Environment Canada. 2013. Amended recovery strategy for the Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus urophasianus) in Canada. Species at Risk Act, Recovery Strategy Series. 57 pp.</ref> In beef production, cattle ranching helps preserve and improve the natural environment by maintaining habitats that are well-suited for grazing animals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf}}</ref> Lightly grazed grasslands also tend to have higher biodiversity than overgrazed or non-grazed grasslands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=2016 |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf |access-date=2021-05-15 |website=[[FAO]]}}</ref> |
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Overgrazing can decrease [[soil quality]] by constantly depleting it of necessary nutrients.<ref>National Research Council. 1994. Rangeland Health. New Methods to Classify, Inventory and Monitor Rangelands. Nat. Acad. Press. 182 pp.</ref> By the end of 2002, the US [[Bureau of Land Management]] (BLM) found that 16% of the evaluated 7,437 grazing allotments had failed to meet [[rangeland health]] standards because of their excessive grazing use.<ref>US BLM. 2004. Proposed Revisions to Grazing Regulations for the Public Lands. FES 04-39</ref> [[Overgrazing]] appears to cause soil [[erosion]] in many dry regions of the world.<ref name="Steinfeld2006" /> However, on US farmland, soil erosion is much less on land used for livestock grazing than on land used for crop production. According to the US [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]], on 95.1% of US pastureland, [[Sheet erosion|sheet]] and [[rill erosion]] are within the estimated [[soil loss tolerance]], and on 99.4% of US pastureland, [[wind erosion]] is within the estimated soil loss tolerance.<ref>NRCS. 2009. Summary report 2007 national resources inventory. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 123 pp.</ref>[[File:Two cows grazing.jpg|thumb|Dryland grazing on the [[Great Plains]] in [[Colorado]]]] |
Overgrazing can decrease [[soil quality]] by constantly depleting it of necessary nutrients.<ref>National Research Council. 1994. Rangeland Health. New Methods to Classify, Inventory and Monitor Rangelands. Nat. Acad. Press. 182 pp.</ref> By the end of 2002, the US [[Bureau of Land Management]] (BLM) found that 16% of the evaluated 7,437 grazing allotments had failed to meet [[rangeland health]] standards because of their excessive grazing use.<ref>US BLM. 2004. Proposed Revisions to Grazing Regulations for the Public Lands. FES 04-39</ref> [[Overgrazing]] appears to cause soil [[erosion]] in many dry regions of the world.<ref name="Steinfeld2006" /> However, on US farmland, soil erosion is much less on land used for livestock grazing than on land used for crop production. According to the US [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]], on 95.1% of US pastureland, [[Sheet erosion|sheet]] and [[rill erosion]] are within the estimated [[soil loss tolerance]], and on 99.4% of US pastureland, [[wind erosion]] is within the estimated soil loss tolerance.<ref>NRCS. 2009. Summary report 2007 national resources inventory. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 123 pp.</ref>[[File:Two cows grazing.jpg|thumb|Dryland grazing on the [[Great Plains]] in [[Colorado]]]] |
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Meat production is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current [[Holocene extinction|biodiversity loss crisis]].<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Woodyatt |first=Amy |date=May 26, 2020 |title=Human activity threatens billions of years of evolutionary history, researchers warn |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/26/world/species-loss-evolution-climate-scn-intl-scli/index.html |access-date=May 27, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | |
Meat production is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current [[Holocene extinction|biodiversity loss crisis]].<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Woodyatt |first=Amy |date=May 26, 2020 |title=Human activity threatens billions of years of evolutionary history, researchers warn |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/26/world/species-loss-evolution-climate-scn-intl-scli/index.html |access-date=May 27, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hentschl |first1=Moritz |last2=Michalke |first2=Amelie |last3=Pieper |first3=Maximilian |last4=Gaugler |first4=Tobias |last5=Stoll-Kleemann |first5=Susanne |date=2023-05-11 |title=Dietary change and land use change: assessing preventable climate and biodiversity damage due to meat consumption in Germany |journal=Sustainability Science |language=en |doi=10.1007/s11625-023-01326-z |issn=1862-4057|doi-access=free }}</ref> The 2019 [[IPBES]] ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' found that [[industrial agriculture]] and [[overfishing]] are the primary drivers of the extinction, with the [[meat industry|meat]] and dairy industries having a substantial impact.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGrath |first=Matt |date=6 May 2019 |title=Humans 'threaten 1m species with extinction' |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48169783 |access-date=3 July 2019 |quote=Pushing all this forward, though, are increased demands for food from a growing global population and specifically our growing appetite for meat and fish.}}</ref><ref name="Watts2019">{{cite news |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=6 May 2019 |title=Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report |access-date=3 July 2019 |quote=Agriculture and fishing are the primary causes of the deterioration. Food production has increased dramatically since the 1970s, which has helped feed a growing global population and generated jobs and economic growth. But this has come at a high cost. The meat industry has a particularly heavy impact. Grazing areas for cattle account for about 25% of the world’s ice-free land and more than 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions.}}</ref> The global livestock sector contributes a significant share to anthropogenic GHG emissions, but it can also deliver a significant share of the necessary mitigation effort.<ref name="FAO-2013">{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/030a41a8-3e10-57d1-ae0c-86680a69ceea |title=Tackling Climate Change through Livestock |publisher=FAO |year=2013 |isbn=9789251079201}}</ref> [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] estimates that the adoption of already available best practices can reduce emissions by up to 30%.<ref name="FAO-2013" /> |
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Grazing (especially [[overgrazing]]) may detrimentally affect certain wildlife species, e.g. by altering cover and food supplies. The growing demand for meat is contributing to [[Holocene extinction|significant biodiversity loss]] as it is a significant driver of [[deforestation]] and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction|title=How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction|first=Jeremy |last=Hance|date=October 20, 2015|work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=January 10, 2017}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Morell |first1=Virginia |year=2015 |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aad1607}}</ref><ref name="Machovina 2015 419–431">{{cite journal|first1=B.|last1=Machovina|first2=K. J.|last2=Feeley|first3=W. J.|last3=Ripple|year=2015|title=Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume= 536|pages=419–431|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022|pmid=26231772|bibcode=2015ScTEn.536..419M}}</ref> World Resource Institute (WRI) website mentions that "30 percent of global forest cover has been cleared, while another 20 percent has been degraded. Most of the rest has been fragmented, leaving only about 15 percent intact."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/our-work/topics/forests|title=Forests|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref> WRI also states that around the world there is "an estimated 1.5 billion hectares (3.7 billion acres) of once-productive croplands and pasturelands – an area nearly the size of Russia – are degraded. Restoring productivity can improve food supplies, [[water security]], and the ability to fight climate change."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/strategic-plan/tackling-global-challenges|title=Tackling Global Challenges|last1=Suite 800|first1=10 G. Street NE|last2=Washington|date=2018-05-04|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2020-01-24|last3=Dc 20002|last4=Fax +1729-7610|first4=USA / Phone +1729-7600 /}}</ref> Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming.<ref name="Watts2019" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction |first=John D. |last=Sutter |date=December 12, 2016|work=[[CNN]]|access-date=January 10, 2017}}</ref> |
Grazing (especially [[overgrazing]]) may detrimentally affect certain wildlife species, e.g. by altering cover and food supplies. The growing demand for meat is contributing to [[Holocene extinction|significant biodiversity loss]] as it is a significant driver of [[deforestation]] and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction|title=How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction|first=Jeremy |last=Hance|date=October 20, 2015|work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=January 10, 2017}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Morell |first1=Virginia |year=2015 |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aad1607}}</ref><ref name="Machovina 2015 419–431">{{cite journal|first1=B.|last1=Machovina|first2=K. J.|last2=Feeley|first3=W. J.|last3=Ripple|year=2015|title=Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume= 536|pages=419–431|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022|pmid=26231772|bibcode=2015ScTEn.536..419M}}</ref> World Resource Institute (WRI) website mentions that "30 percent of global forest cover has been cleared, while another 20 percent has been degraded. Most of the rest has been fragmented, leaving only about 15 percent intact."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/our-work/topics/forests|title=Forests|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref> WRI also states that around the world there is "an estimated 1.5 billion hectares (3.7 billion acres) of once-productive croplands and pasturelands – an area nearly the size of Russia – are degraded. Restoring productivity can improve food supplies, [[water security]], and the ability to fight climate change."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/strategic-plan/tackling-global-challenges|title=Tackling Global Challenges|last1=Suite 800|first1=10 G. Street NE|last2=Washington|date=2018-05-04|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2020-01-24|last3=Dc 20002|last4=Fax +1729-7610|first4=USA / Phone +1729-7600 /}}</ref> Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming.<ref name="Watts2019" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction |first=John D. |last=Sutter |date=December 12, 2016|work=[[CNN]]|access-date=January 10, 2017}}</ref> |
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===Meat-reduction strategies=== |
===Meat-reduction strategies=== |
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Strategies for implementing meat-reduction among populations include large-scale [[Education#Development|education]] and awareness building to promote more sustainable consumption styles. Other types of policy interventions could accelerate these shifts and might include "[[rationing|restrictions]] or fiscal mechanisms such as [[meat tax|[meat] taxes]]".<ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340" /> In the case of fiscal mechanisms, these could be based on forms of [[Externality#Scientific calculation of external costs|scientific calculation of external costs]] (externalities currently not reflected in any way in the monetary price)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieper |first1=Maximilian |last2=Michalke |first2=Amelie |last3=Gaugler |first3=Tobias |title=Calculation of external climate costs for food highlights inadequate pricing of animal products |journal=Nature Communications |date=15 December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6117 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6 |pmid=33323933 |pmc=7738510 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6117P |s2cid=229282344 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> to make the [[Polluter pays principle|polluter pay]], e.g. for the damage done by excess nitrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Have we reached 'peak meat'? Why one country is trying to limit its number of livestock |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/16/netherlands-european-union-regulations-livestock |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In the case of restrictions, this could be based on limited domestic supply or [[Personal carbon trading|Personal (Carbon) Allowances (certificates and credits which would reward sustainable behavior)]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fuso Nerini |first1=Francesco |last2=Fawcett |first2=Tina |last3=Parag |first3=Yael |last4=Ekins |first4=Paul |title=Personal carbon allowances revisited |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=December 2021 |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=1025–1031 |doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00756-w |s2cid=237101457 |language=en |issn=2398-9629|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A blueprint for scaling voluntary carbon markets {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/a-blueprint-for-scaling-voluntary-carbon-markets-to-meet-the-climate-challenge |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}</ref> |
Strategies for implementing meat-reduction among populations include large-scale [[Education#Development|education]] and awareness building to promote more sustainable consumption styles. Other types of policy interventions could accelerate these shifts and might include "[[rationing|restrictions]] or fiscal mechanisms such as [[meat tax|[meat] taxes]]".<ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340" /> In the case of fiscal mechanisms, these could be based on forms of [[Externality#Scientific calculation of external costs|scientific calculation of external costs]] (externalities currently not reflected in any way in the monetary price)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieper |first1=Maximilian |last2=Michalke |first2=Amelie |last3=Gaugler |first3=Tobias |title=Calculation of external climate costs for food highlights inadequate pricing of animal products |journal=Nature Communications |date=15 December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6117 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6 |pmid=33323933 |pmc=7738510 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6117P |s2cid=229282344 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> to make the [[Polluter pays principle|polluter pay]], e.g. for the damage done by excess nitrogen.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Have we reached 'peak meat'? Why one country is trying to limit its number of livestock |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/16/netherlands-european-union-regulations-livestock |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In the case of restrictions, this could be based on limited domestic supply or [[Personal carbon trading|Personal (Carbon) Allowances (certificates and credits which would reward sustainable behavior)]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fuso Nerini |first1=Francesco |last2=Fawcett |first2=Tina |last3=Parag |first3=Yael |last4=Ekins |first4=Paul |title=Personal carbon allowances revisited |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=December 2021 |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=1025–1031 |doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00756-w |s2cid=237101457 |language=en |issn=2398-9629|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021NatSu...4.1025F }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A blueprint for scaling voluntary carbon markets {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/a-blueprint-for-scaling-voluntary-carbon-markets-to-meet-the-climate-challenge |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}</ref> |
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Relevant to such a strategy, estimating the environmental impacts of food products in a [[standardization|standardized]] way – as has been done with [[Life-cycle assessment#LCA dataset creation|a dataset]] of more than 57,000 food [[Product (business)|products]] in supermarkets – could also be used to inform consumers or in [[policy]], making consumers more aware of the environmental impacts of animal-based products (or requiring them to take such into consideration).<ref>{{cite news |title=These are the UK supermarket items with the worst environmental impact |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2332392-these-are-the-uk-supermarket-items-with-the-worst-environmental-impact/ |access-date=14 September 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Michael |last2=Springmann |first2=Marco |last3=Rayner |first3=Mike |last4=Scarborough |first4=Peter |last5=Hill |first5=Jason |last6=Tilman |first6=David |last7=Macdiarmid |first7=Jennie I. |last8=Fanzo |first8=Jessica |last9=Bandy |first9=Lauren |last10=Harrington |first10=Richard A. |title=Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=16 August 2022 |volume=119 |issue=33 |pages=e2120584119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120584119 |pmid=35939701 |pmc=9388151 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920584C |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
Relevant to such a strategy, estimating the environmental impacts of food products in a [[standardization|standardized]] way – as has been done with [[Life-cycle assessment#LCA dataset creation|a dataset]] of more than 57,000 food [[Product (business)|products]] in supermarkets – could also be used to inform consumers or in [[policy]], making consumers more aware of the environmental impacts of animal-based products (or requiring them to take such into consideration).<ref>{{cite news |title=These are the UK supermarket items with the worst environmental impact |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2332392-these-are-the-uk-supermarket-items-with-the-worst-environmental-impact/ |access-date=14 September 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Michael |last2=Springmann |first2=Marco |last3=Rayner |first3=Mike |last4=Scarborough |first4=Peter |last5=Hill |first5=Jason |last6=Tilman |first6=David |last7=Macdiarmid |first7=Jennie I. |last8=Fanzo |first8=Jessica |last9=Bandy |first9=Lauren |last10=Harrington |first10=Richard A. |title=Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=16 August 2022 |volume=119 |issue=33 |pages=e2120584119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120584119 |pmid=35939701 |pmc=9388151 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920584C |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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It has been suggested that Environmental impact of cattlebemerged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since March 2024.
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The environmental impacts of animal agriculture vary because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. Despite this, all agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment to some extent. Animal agriculture, in particular meat production, can cause pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, disease, and significant consumption of land, food, and water. Meat is obtained through a variety of methods, including organic farming, free-range farming, intensive livestock production, and subsistence agriculture. The livestock sector also includes wool, egg and dairy production, the livestock used for tillage, and fish farming.
Animal agriculture is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Cows, sheep, and other ruminants digest their food by enteric fermentation, and their burps are the main source of methane emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry. Together with methane and nitrous oxide from manure, this makes livestock the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.[1] A significant reduction in meat consumption is essential to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century.[2][3]
Categories | Contribution of farmed animal product [%] |
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Calories |
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Proteins |
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Land use |
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Greenhouse gases |
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Water pollution |
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Air pollution |
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Freshwater withdrawals |
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Multiple studies have found that increases in meat consumption are currently associated with human population growth and rising individual incomes or GDP, and therefore, the environmental impacts of meat production and consumption will increase unless current behaviours change.[5][6][7][2]
Changes in demand for meat will influence how much is produced, thus changing the environmental impact of meat production. It has been estimated that global meat consumption may double from 2000 to 2050, mostly as a consequence of the increasing world population, but also partly because of increased per capita meat consumption (with much of the per capita consumption increase occurring in the developing world).[8] The human population is projected to grow to 9 billion by 2050, and meat production is expected to increase by 40%.[9] Global production and consumption of poultry meat have been growing recently at more than 5% annually.[8] Meat consumption typically increases as people and countries get richer.[10] Trends also vary among livestock sectors. For example, global pork consumption per capita has increased recently (almost entirely due to changes in consumption within China), while global consumption per capita of ruminant meats has been declining.[8]
About 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into meal and vegetable oil, and virtually all of that meal is used in animal feed.[11] Approximately 6% of soybeans are used directly as human food, mostly in Asia.[11]
For every 100 kilograms of food made for humans from crops, 37 kilograms byproducts unsuitable for direct human consumption are generated. [12] Many countries then repurpose these human-inedible crop byproducts as livestock feed for cattle.[13] Raising animals for human consumption accounts for approximately 40% of total agricultural output in industrialized nations.[14] Moreover, the efficiency of meat production varies depending on the specific production system, as well as the type of feed. It may require anywhere from 0.9 and 7.9 kilograms of grain to produce 1 kilogram of beef, between 0.1 to 4.3 kilograms of grain to produce 1 kilogram of pork, and 0 to 3.5 kilograms of grains to produce 1 kilogram of chicken.[15][16]
FAO estimates, however, that about 2 thirds of the pasture area used by livestock is not convertible to crop-land.[15][16]
Major corporations purchase land in different developing nations in Latin America and Asia to support large-scale production of animal feed crops, mainly corn and soybeans. This practice reduces the amount of land available for growing crops that are fit for human consumption in these countries, putting the local population at risk of food security.[17]
According to a study conducted in Jiangsu, China, individuals with higher incomes tend to consume more food than those with lower incomes and larger families. Consequently, it is unlikely that those employed in animal feed production in these regions do not consume the animals that eat the crops they produce. The lack of space for growing crops for consumption, coupled with the need to feed larger families, only exacerbates their food insecurity.[18]
According to FAO, crop-residues and by-products account for 24% of the total dry matter intake of the global livestock sector.[15][16] A 2018 study found that, "Currently, 70% of the feedstock used in the Dutch feed industry originates from the food processing industry."[19] Examples of grain-based waste conversion in the United States include feeding livestock the distillers grains (with solubles) remaining from ethanol production. For the marketing year 2009–2010, dried distillers grains used as livestock feed (and residual) in the US was estimated at 25.5 million metric tons.[20] Examples of waste roughages include straw from barley and wheat crops (edible especially to large-ruminant breeding stock when on maintenance diets),[21][22][23] and corn stover.[24][25]
Food Types | Land Use (m2year per 100g protein) |
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Lamb and mutton |
|
Beef |
|
Cheese |
|
Pork |
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Poultry |
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Eggs |
|
Farmed fish |
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Groundnuts |
|
Peas |
|
Tofu |
|
Permanent meadows and pastures, grazed or not, occupy 26% of the Earth's ice-free terrestrial surface.[15][16] Feed crop production uses about one-third of all arable land.[15][16] More than one-third of U.S. land is used for pasture, making it the largest land-use type in the contiguous United States.[27]
In many countries, livestock graze from the land which mostly cannot be used for growing human-edible crops, as seen by the fact that there is three times as much agricultural land[28] as arable land.[29]
A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced land use by 75%.[30]
Free-range animal production, particularly beef production, has also caused tropical deforestation because it requires land for grazing.[31] The livestock sector is also the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all deforested land being used for cattle farming.[32][33] Additionally, 91% of deforested land since 1970 has been used for cattle farming.[34][35] Research has argued that a shift to meat-free diets could provide a safe option to feed a growing population without further deforestation, and for different yields scenarios.[36] However, according to FAO, grazing livestock in drylands “removes vegetation, including dry and flammable plants, and mobilizes stored biomass through depositions, which is partly transferred to the soil, improving fertility. Livestock is key to creating and maintaining specific habitats and green infrastructures, providing resources for other species and dispersing seeds”.[37]
Globally, the amount of water used for agricultural purposes exceeds any other industrialized purpose of water consumption.[38] About 80% of water resources globally are used for agricultural ecosystems. In developed countries, up to 60% of total water consumption can be used for irrigation; in developing countries, it can be up to 90%, depending on the region's economic status and climate. According to the projected increase in food production by 2050, water consumption would need to increase by 53% to satisfy the world population's demands for meat and agricultural production.[38]
Groundwater depletion is a concern in some areas because of sustainability issues (and in some cases, land subsidence and/or saltwater intrusion).[39] A particularly important North American example of depletion is the High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer, which underlies about 174,000 square miles in parts of eight states of the USA and supplies 30 percent of the groundwater withdrawn for irrigation there.[40] Some irrigated livestock feed production is not hydrologically sustainable in the long run because of aquifer depletion. Rainfed agriculture, which cannot deplete its water source, produces much of the livestock feed in North America. Corn (maize) is of particular interest, accounting for about 91.8% of the grain fed to US livestock and poultry in 2010.[41]: table 1–75 About 14 percent of US corn-for-grain land is irrigated, accounting for about 17% of US corn-for-grain production and 13% of US irrigation water use,[42][43] but only about 40% of US corn grain is fed to US livestock and poultry.[41]: table 1–38 Irrigation accounts for about 37% of US withdrawn freshwater use, and groundwater provides about 42% of US irrigation water.[44] Irrigation water applied in the production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent of withdrawn freshwater use in the United States.[45]
Almost one-third of the water used in the western United States goes to crops that feed cattle.[46] This is despite the claim that withdrawn surface water and groundwater used for crop irrigation in the US exceeds that for livestock by about a ratio of 60:1.[44] This excessive use of river water distresses ecosystems and communities, and drives scores of species of fish closer to extinction during times of drought.[47]
A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced water usage by 54%.[30]
A study in 2019 focused on linkages between water usage and animal agricultural practices in China.[48] The results of the study showed that water resources were being used primarily for animal agriculture; the highest categories were animal husbandry, agriculture, slaughtering and processing of meat, fisheries, and other foods. Together they accounted for the consumption of over 2400 billion m3 embodied water, roughly equating to 40% of total embodied[clarification needed] water by the whole system.[48] This means that more than one-third of China's entire water consumption is being used for food processing purposes, and mostly for animal agricultural practices.
Food types | Litres per kilocalorie |
Litres per gram of protein |
Litres per kilogram [clarification needed] |
Litres per gram of fat |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sugar crops | 0.69 | 0.0 | 197 | 0.0 |
Vegetables | 1.34 | 26 | 322 | 154 |
Starchy roots | 0.47 | 31 | 387 | 226 |
Fruits | 2.09 | 180 | 962 | 348 |
Cereals | 0.51 | 21 | 1644 | 112 |
Oil crops | 0.81 | 16 | 2364 | 11 |
Pulses | 1.19 | 19 | 4055 | 180 |
Nuts | 3.63 | 139 | 9063 | 47 |
Milk | 1.82 | 31 | 1020 | 33 |
Eggs | 2.29 | 29 | 3265 | 33 |
Chicken meat | 3.00 | 34 | 4325 | 43 |
Butter | 0.72 | 0.0 | 5553 | 6.4 |
Pig meat | 2.15 | 57 | 5988 | 23 |
Sheep/goat meat | 4.25 | 63 | 8763 | 54 |
Bovine meat | 10.19 | 112 | 15415 | 153 |
Water pollution due to animal waste is a common problem in both developed and developing nations.[14] The USA, Canada, India, Greece, Switzerland and several other countries are experiencing major environmental degradation due to water pollution via animal waste.[50]: Table I-1 Concerns about such problems are particularly acute in the case of CAFOs (concentrated animal feeding operations). In the US, a permit for a CAFO requires the implementation of a plan for the management of manure nutrients, contaminants, wastewater, etc., as applicable, to meet requirements under the Clean Water Act.[51] There were about 19,000 CAFOs in the US as of 2008.[52] In fiscal 2014, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) concluded 26 enforcement actions for various violations by CAFOs.[53]
A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced water pollution by 75%.[30]
Effective use of fertilizer is crucial to accelerate the growth of animal feed production, which in turn increases the amount of feed available for livestock.[54] However, excess fertilizer can enter water bodies via runoff after rainfall, resulting in eutrophication.[55] The addition of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause the rapid growth of algae, also known as an algae bloom. The reduction of oxygen and nutrients in the water caused by the growth of algae ultimately leads to the death of other species in the ecosystem. This ecological harm has consequences not only for the native animals in the affected water body but also for the water supply for people.[54]
To dispose of animal waste and other pollutants, animal production farms often spray manure (often contaminated with potentially toxic bacteria) onto empty fields, called "spray-fields", via sprinkler systems. The toxins within these spray-fields oftentimes run into creeks, ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water, contaminating bodies of water. This process has also led to the contamination of drinking water reserves, harming the environment and citizens alike.[56]
Food Types | Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein) |
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Beef |
|
Cheese |
|
Pork |
|
Lamb and Mutton |
|
Farmed Crustaceans |
|
Poultry |
|
Farmed Fish |
|
Eggs |
|
Groundnuts |
|
Peas |
|
Tofu |
|
Animal agriculture is a cause of harmful particulate matter pollution in the atmosphere. This type of production chain produces byproducts; endotoxin, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and particulate matter (PM), such as dust,[57][58] all of which can negatively impact human respiratory health.[59] Furthermore, methane and CO2—the primary greenhouse gas emissions associated with meat production—have also been associated with respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, and COPD.[60]
A study found that concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) could increase perceived asthma-like symptoms for residents within 500 meters.[61] Concentrated hog feeding operations release air pollutants from confinement buildings, manure holding pits, and land application of waste. Air pollutants from these operations have caused acute physical symptoms, such as respiratory illnesses, wheezing, increased breath rate, and irritation of the eyes and nose.[62][63][64] That prolonged exposure to airborne animal particulate, such as swine dust, induces a large influx of inflammatory cells into the airways.[65] Those in close proximity to CAFOs could be exposed to elevated levels of these byproducts, which may lead to poor health and respiratory outcomes.[66] Additionally, since CAFOs tend to be located in primarily rural and low-income communities, low-income people are disproportionately affected by these environmental health consequences. [1]
Especially when modified by high temperatures, air pollution can harm all regions, socioeconomic groups, sexes, and age groups. Approximately seven million people die from air pollution exposure every year. Air pollution often exacerbates respiratory disease by permeating into the lung tissue and damaging the lungs.[67]
Despite the wealth of environmental consequences listed above, local US governments tend to support the harmful practices of the animal production industry due to its strong economic benefits. Due to this protective legislature, it is extremely difficult for activists to regulate industry practices and diminish environmental impacts. [68]
An important aspect of energy use in livestock production is the energy consumption that the animals contribute. Feed Conversion Ratio is an animal's ability to convert feed into meat. The Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) is calculated by taking the energy, protein, or mass input of the feed divided by the output of meat provided by the animal. A lower FCR corresponds with a smaller requirement of feed per meat output, and therefore the animal contributes less GHG emissions. Chickens and pigs usually have a lower FCR compared to ruminants.[69]
Intensification and other changes in the livestock industries influence energy use, emissions, and other environmental effects of meat production.[70]
Manure can also have environmental benefits as a renewable energy source, in digester systems yielding biogas for heating and/or electricity generation. Manure biogas operations can be found in Asia, Europe,[71][72] North America, and elsewhere.[73] System cost is substantial, relative to US energy values, which may be a deterrent to more widespread use. Additional factors, such as odour control and carbon credits, may improve benefit-to-cost ratios.[74] Manure can be mixed with other organic wastes in anaerobic digesters to take advantage of economies of scale. Digested waste is more uniform in consistency than untreated organic wastes, and can have higher proportions of nutrients that are more available to plants, which enhances the utility of digestate as a fertiliser product.[75] This encourages circularity in meat production, which is typically difficult to achieve due to environmental and food safety concerns.
Cows, sheep and other ruminants digest their food by enteric fermentation, and their burps are the main methane emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry: together with methane and nitrous oxide from manure this makes livestock the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.[1]
The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 stated that: "Diets high in plant protein and low in meat and dairy are associated with lower GHG emissions. [...] Where appropriate, a shift to diets with a higher share of plant protein, moderate intake of animal-source foods and reduced intake of saturated fats could lead to substantial decreases in GHG emissions. Benefits would also include reduced land occupation and nutrient losses to the surrounding environment, while at the same time providing health benefits and reducing mortality from diet-related non-communicable diseases."[76]
A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced emissions by 75%.[30]
According to a 2022 study quickly stopping animal agriculture would provide half the GHG emission reduction needed to meet the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to 2 °C.[3]
The global food system is responsible for one-third of the global anthropogenic GHG emissions,[77][78] of which meat accounts for nearly 60%.[31][79]
Mitigation options for reducing methane emission from livestock include a change in diet, that is consuming less meat and dairy.[80] A significant reduction in meat consumption will be essential to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century.[2] A 2019 report in The Lancet recommended that global meat consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change.[81] A study quantified climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and restoration of the spared land, finding that if these were combined they could "reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61%".[82][83]
In addition to reduced consumption, emissions can also be reduced by changes in practice. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 MtCO2e yr−1) without increasing costs or changing diets.[84]
Producers can reduce ruminant enteric fermentation using genetic selection,[85][86] immunization, rumen defaunation, competition of methanogenic archaea with acetogens,[87] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen,[88][89] diet modification and grazing management, among others.[90][91][92] The principal mitigation strategies identified for reduction of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions are avoiding over-application of nitrogen fertilizers and adopting suitable manure management practices.[93][94] Mitigation strategies for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the livestock sector include adopting more efficient production practices to reduce agricultural pressure for deforestation (such as in Latin America), reducing fossil fuel consumption, and increasing carbon sequestration in soils.[95]
Measures that increase state revenues from meat consumption/production could enable the use of these funds for related research and development and "to cushion social hardships among low-income consumers". Meat and livestock are important sectors of the contemporary socioeconomic system, with livestock value chains employing an estimated >1.3 billion people.[5]
Sequestering carbon into soil is currently not feasible to cancel out planet-warming emissions caused by the livestock sector. The global livestock annually emits 135 billion metric tons of carbon, way more than can be returned to the soil.[96] Despite of this the idea of sequestering carbon to the soil is currently advocated by livestock industry as well as grassroots groups.[97]
Grazing can have positive or negative effects on rangeland health, depending on management quality,[98] and grazing can have different effects on different soils[99] and different plant communities.[100] Grazing can sometimes reduce, and other times increase, biodiversity of grassland ecosystems.[101][102] In beef production, cattle ranching helps preserve and improve the natural environment by maintaining habitats that are well-suited for grazing animals.[103] Lightly grazed grasslands also tend to have higher biodiversity than overgrazed or non-grazed grasslands.[104]
Overgrazing can decrease soil quality by constantly depleting it of necessary nutrients.[105] By the end of 2002, the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) found that 16% of the evaluated 7,437 grazing allotments had failed to meet rangeland health standards because of their excessive grazing use.[106] Overgrazing appears to cause soil erosion in many dry regions of the world.[14] However, on US farmland, soil erosion is much less on land used for livestock grazing than on land used for crop production. According to the US Natural Resources Conservation Service, on 95.1% of US pastureland, sheet and rill erosion are within the estimated soil loss tolerance, and on 99.4% of US pastureland, wind erosion is within the estimated soil loss tolerance.[107]
Grazing can affect the sequestration of carbon and nitrogen in the soil. This sequestration helps mitigate the effects of greenhouse gas emissions, and in some cases, increases ecosystem productivity by affecting nutrient cycling.[108] A 2017 meta-study of the scientific literature estimated that the total global soil carbon sequestration potential from grazing management ranges from 0.3-0.8 Gt CO2eq per year, which is equivalent to 4-11% of total global livestock emissions, but that “Expansion or intensification in the grazing sector as an approach to sequestering more carbon would lead to substantial increases in methane, nitrous oxide and land use change-induced CO2 emissions”[109] Project Drawdown estimates the total carbon sequestration potential of improved managed grazing at 13.72 - 20.92 Gigatons CO2eq between 2020–2050, equal to 0.46-0.70 Gt CO2eq per year.[110] A 2022 peer-reviewed paper estimated the carbon sequestration potential of improved grazing management at a similar level of 0.15-0.70 Gt CO2eq per year.[111] A 2021 peer-reviewed paper found that sparsely grazed and natural grasslands account for 80% of the total cumulative carbon sink of the world’s grasslands, whereas managed grasslands have been a net greenhouse gas source over the past decade.[112] Another peer-reviewed paper found that if current pastureland was restored to its former state as wild grasslands, shrublands, and sparse savannas without livestock this could store an estimated 15.2 - 59.9 Gt additional carbon.[113] A study found that grazing in US virgin grasslands causes the soil to have lower soil organic carbon but higher soil nitrogen content.[114] In contrast, at the High Plains Grasslands Research Station in Wyoming, the soil in the grazed pastures had more organic carbon and nitrogen in the top 30 cm than the soil in non-grazed pastures.[115] Additionally, in the Piedmont region of the US, well-managed grazing of livestock on previously eroded soil resulted in high rates of beneficial carbon and nitrogen sequestration compared to non-grazed grass.[116]
In Canada, a review highlighted that the methane and nitrous oxide emitted from manure management comprised 17% of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions, while nitrous oxide emitted from soils after application of manure, accounted for 50% of total emissions.[117]
Manure provides environmental benefits when properly managed. Manure that is deposited on pastures by grazing animals is an effective way to preserve soil fertility. Many nutrients are recycled in crop cultivation by collecting animal manure from barns and concentrated feeding sites, sometimes after composting. For many areas with high livestock density, manure application substantially replaces the application of synthetic fertilizers on surrounding cropland.[118] Manure is also spread on forage-producing land that is grazed, rather than cropped.[43]
Also, small-ruminant flocks in North America (and elsewhere) are sometimes used on fields for removal of various crop residues inedible by humans, converting them to food. Small ruminants, such as sheep and goats, can control some invasive or noxious weeds (such as spotted knapweed, tansy ragwort, leafy spurge, yellow starthistle, tall larkspur, etc.) on rangeland.[119] Small ruminants are also useful for vegetation management in forest plantations and for clearing brush on rights-of-way. Other ruminants, like Nublang cattle, are used in Bhutan to help of a species of bamboo, Yushania microphylla, which tends to crowd out indigenous plant species.[120] These represent alternatives to herbicide use.[121]
Meat production is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current biodiversity loss crisis.[124][125][126] The 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture and overfishing are the primary drivers of the extinction, with the meat and dairy industries having a substantial impact.[127][128] The global livestock sector contributes a significant share to anthropogenic GHG emissions, but it can also deliver a significant share of the necessary mitigation effort.[129] FAO estimates that the adoption of already available best practices can reduce emissions by up to 30%.[129]
Grazing (especially overgrazing) may detrimentally affect certain wildlife species, e.g. by altering cover and food supplies. The growing demand for meat is contributing to significant biodiversity loss as it is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production.[130][124][131] World Resource Institute (WRI) website mentions that "30 percent of global forest cover has been cleared, while another 20 percent has been degraded. Most of the rest has been fragmented, leaving only about 15 percent intact."[132] WRI also states that around the world there is "an estimated 1.5 billion hectares (3.7 billion acres) of once-productive croplands and pasturelands – an area nearly the size of Russia – are degraded. Restoring productivity can improve food supplies, water security, and the ability to fight climate change."[133] Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming.[128][134]
A 2022 report from World Animal Protection and the Center for Biological Diversity found that, based on 2018 data, some 235 million pounds (or 117,500 tons) of pesticides are used for animal feed purposes annually in the United States alone, in particular glyphosate and atrazine. The report emphasizes that 100,000 pounds of glyphosate has the potential to harm or kill some 93% of species listed under the Endangered Species Act. Atrazine, which is banned in 35 countries, could harm or kill at least 1,000 listed species. Both groups involved in the report advocate for consumers to reduce their consumption of animal products and to transition towards plant-based diets in order to reduce the growth of factory farming and protect endangered species of wildlife.[135]
A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced wildlife destruction by 66%.[30]
In North America, various studies have found that grazing sometimes improves habitat for elk,[136] blacktailed prairie dogs,[137] sage grouse,[138] and mule deer.[139][140] A survey of refuge managers on 123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by refuge cattle grazing or haying.[141] The kind of grazing system employed (e.g. rest-rotation, deferred grazing, HILF grazing) is often important in achieving grazing benefits for particular wildlife species.[142]
The biologists Rodolfo Dirzo, Gerardo Ceballos, and Paul R. Ehrlich write in an opinion piece for Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B that reductions in meat consumption "can translate not only into less heat, but also more space for biodiversity." They insist that it is the "massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein.[143]
Food Types | Eutrophying Emissions (g PO43-eq per 100g protein) |
---|---|
Beef |
|
Farmed Fish |
|
Farmed Crustaceans |
|
Cheese |
|
Lamb and Mutton |
|
Pork |
|
Poultry |
|
Eggs |
|
Groundnuts |
|
Peas |
|
Tofu |
|
Global agricultural practices are known to be one of the main reasons for environmental degradation. Animal agriculture worldwide encompasses 83% of farmland (however, only accounts for 18% of the global calorie intake), and the direct consumption of animals as well as over-harvesting them is causing environmental degradation through habitat alteration, biodiversity loss, climate change, pollution, and trophic interactions.[144] These pressures are enough to drive biodiversity loss in any habitat, however freshwater ecosystems are showing to be more sensitive and less protected than others and show a very high effect on biodiversity loss when faced with these impacts.[144]
In the Western United States, many stream and riparian habitats have been negatively affected by livestock grazing. This has resulted in increased phosphates, nitrates, decreased dissolved oxygen, increased temperature, turbidity, and eutrophication events, and reduced species diversity.[145][146] Livestock management options for riparian protection include salt and mineral placement, limiting seasonal access, use of alternative water sources, provision of "hardened" stream crossings, herding, and fencing.[147][148] In the Eastern United States, a 1997 study found that waste release from pork farms has also been shown to cause large-scale eutrophication of bodies of water, including the Mississippi River and Atlantic Ocean (Palmquist, et al., 1997).[149] In North Carolina, where the study was done, measures have since been taken to reduce the risk of accidental discharges from manure lagoons, and since then there has been evidence of improved environmental management in US hog production.[150] Implementation of manure and wastewater management planning can help assure low risk of problematic discharge into aquatic systems.[150]
In Central-Eastern Argentina, a 2017 study found large quantities of metal pollutants (chromium, copper, arsenic and lead) in their freshwater streams, disrupting the aquatic biota.[151] The level of chromium in the freshwater systems exceeded 181.5x the recommended guidelines necessary for survival of aquatic life, while Pb was 41.6x, Cu was 57.5x, and As exceeded 12.9x. The results showed excess metal accumulation due to agricultural runoff, the use of pesticides, and poor mitigation efforts to stop the excess runoff.[151]
Animal agriculture contributes to global warming, which leads to ocean acidification. This occurs because as carbon emissions increase, a chemical reaction occurs between carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and ocean water, causing seawater acidification.[152] The process is also known as the dissolution of inorganic carbon in seawater.[153] This chemical reaction creates an environment that makes it difficult for calcifying organisms to produce protective shells and causes seagrass overpopulation.[154] A reduction in marine life can have an adverse effect on people’s way of life, since limited sea life may reduce food availability and reduce coastal protection against storms.[155]
Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandryoflivestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a group of animals when at least one is diagnosed with clinical infection (metaphylaxis[156]), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis). Antibiotics are an important tool to treat animal as well as human disease, safeguard animal health and welfare, and support food safety.[157] However, used irresponsibly, this may lead to antibiotic resistance which may impact human, animal and environmental health.[158][159][160][161]
While levels of use vary dramatically from country to country, for example some Northern European countries use very low quantities to treat animals compared with humans,[162][163] worldwide an estimated 73% of antimicrobials (mainly antibiotics) are consumed by farm animals.[164] Furthermore, a 2015 study also estimates that global agricultural antibiotic usage will increase by 67% from 2010 to 2030, mainly from increases in use in developing BRIC countries.[165]
Increased antibiotic use is a matter of concern as antibiotic resistance is considered to be a serious threat to human and animal welfare in the future, and growing levels of antibiotics or antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment could increase the numbers of drug-resistant infections in both.[166] Bacterial diseases are a leading cause of death and a future without effective antibiotics would fundamentally change the way modern human as well as veterinary medicine is practised.[166][167][168] However, legislation and other curbs on antibiotic use in farm animals are now being introduced across the globe.[169][170][171] In 2017, the World Health Organization strongly suggested reducing antibiotic use in animals used in the food industry.[172]
The use of antibiotics for growth promotion purposes was banned in the European Union from 2006,[173] and the use of sub-therapeutic doses of medically important antibiotics in animal feed and water[174] to promote growth and improve feed efficiency became illegal in the United States on 1 January 2017, through regulatory change enacted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which sought voluntary compliance from drug manufacturers to re-label their antibiotics.[175][176]There are concerns about meat production's potential to spread diseases as an environmental impact.[177][178][179][180]
A study shows that novel foods such as cultured meat and dairy, algae, existing microbial foods, and ground-up insects are shown to have the potential to reduce environmental impacts[5][181][182][183] – by over 80%.[184][185] Various combinations may further reduce the environmental impacts of these alternatives – for example, a study explored solar-energy-driven production of microbial foods from direct air capture.[186] Alternatives are not only relevant for human consumption but also for pet food and other animal feed.
Meat can be substituted in most diets with a wide variety of foods such as fungi[187][188][189] or special "meat substitutes".
However, substantially reducing meat intake could result in nutritional deficiencies if done inadequately, especially for children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating women "in low-income countries".[5] A review suggests that the reduction of meat in people's diets should be accompanied by an increase in alternative sources of protein and micronutrients to avoid nutritional deficiencies for healthy diets such as iron and zinc.[5] Meats notably also contain vitamin B12,[190] collagen[191] and creatine.[192] This could be achieved with specific types of foods such as iron-rich beans and a diverse variety of protein-rich foods[193] like red lentils, plant-based protein powders[194] and high-protein wraps, and/or dietary supplements.[182][195][196] Dairy and fish and/or specific types of other foods and/or supplements contain omega 3, vitamin K2, vitamin D3, iodine, magnesium and calcium many of which were generally lower in people consuming types of plant-based diets in studies.[197][198]
Nevertheless, observational studies find beneficial effects of plant-based diets versus people who consume meat products on health and lifespan[199] or mortality.[5][200][201][202]
Strategies for implementing meat-reduction among populations include large-scale education and awareness building to promote more sustainable consumption styles. Other types of policy interventions could accelerate these shifts and might include "restrictions or fiscal mechanisms such as [meat] taxes".[5] In the case of fiscal mechanisms, these could be based on forms of scientific calculation of external costs (externalities currently not reflected in any way in the monetary price)[203] to make the polluter pay, e.g. for the damage done by excess nitrogen.[204] In the case of restrictions, this could be based on limited domestic supply or Personal (Carbon) Allowances (certificates and credits which would reward sustainable behavior).[205][206]
Relevant to such a strategy, estimating the environmental impacts of food products in a standardized way – as has been done with a dataset of more than 57,000 food products in supermarkets – could also be used to inform consumers or in policy, making consumers more aware of the environmental impacts of animal-based products (or requiring them to take such into consideration).[207][208]
Young adults that are faced with new physical or social environments (for example, moving away from home) are also more likely to make dietary changes and reduce their meat intake.[209] Another strategy includes increasing the prices of meat while also reducing the prices of plant-based products, which could show a significant impact on meat-reduction.[210]
A reduction in meat portion sizes could potentially be more beneficial than cutting out meat entirely from ones diet, according to a 2022 study.[209] This study revolved around young Dutch adults, and showed that the adults were more reluctant to cut out meat entirely to make the change to plant-based diets due to habitual behaviours. Increasing and improving plant-based alternatives, as well as the education about plant-based alternatives, proved to be one of the most effective ways to combat these behaviours. The lack of education about plant-based alternatives is a road-block for most people - most adults do not know how to properly cook plant-based meals or know the health risks/benefits associated with a vegetarian diet - which is why education among adults is important in meat-reduction strategies.[209][210]
In the Netherlands, a meat tax of 15% to 30% could show a reduction of meat consumption by 8% to 16%.[209] as well as reducing the amount of livestock by buying out farmers.[211] In 2022, the city of Haarlem, Netherlands announced that advertisements for factory-farmed meat will be banned in public places, starting in 2024.[212]
A 2022 review concluded that "low and moderate meat consumption levels are compatible with the climate targets and broader sustainable development, even for 10 billion people".[5]
InJune 2023, the European Commission's Scientific Advice Mechanism published a review of all available evidence and accompanying policy recommendations to promote sustainable food consumption and reducing meat intake. They reported that the evidence supports policy interventions on pricing (including "meat taxes, and pricing products according to their environmental impacts, as well as lower taxes on healthy and sustainable alternatives"), availability and visibility, food composition, labelling and the social environment.[213] They also stated:
People choose food not just through rational reflection, but also based on many other factors: food availability, habits and routines, emotional and impulsive reactions, and their financial and social situation. So we should consider ways to unburden the consumer and make sustainable, healthy food an easy and affordable choice.
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The non-peer-reviewed estimates from the Savory Institute are strikingly higher – and, for all the reasons discussed earlier (Section 3.4.3), unrealistic.
Pushing all this forward, though, are increased demands for food from a growing global population and specifically our growing appetite for meat and fish.
Agriculture and fishing are the primary causes of the deterioration. Food production has increased dramatically since the 1970s, which has helped feed a growing global population and generated jobs and economic growth. But this has come at a high cost. The meat industry has a particularly heavy impact. Grazing areas for cattle account for about 25% of the world's ice-free land and more than 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
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The dramatic deforestation resulting from land conversion for agriculture and meat production could be reduced via adopting a diet that reduces meat consumption. Less meat can translate not only into less heat, but also more space for biodiversity . . . Although among many Indigenous populations, meat consumption represents a cultural tradition and a source of protein, it is the massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed
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