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Marine [[teleost]]s also use gills to excrete [[electrolyte]]s. The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the [[osmolarity]] of their internal fluids. Saltwater is less dilute than these internal fluids, so saltwater fish lose large quantities of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of [[seawater]] and excrete the [[salt]]. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water [[osmosis|osmotically]] through their gills.<ref name=VB/> |
Marine [[teleost]]s also use gills to excrete [[electrolyte]]s. The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the [[osmolarity]] of their internal fluids. Saltwater is less dilute than these internal fluids, so saltwater fish lose large quantities of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of [[seawater]] and excrete the [[salt]]. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water [[osmosis|osmotically]] through their gills.<ref name=VB/> |
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In some primitive bony fishes and [[amphibians]], the [[larva]]e bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The American Naturalist|year=1957|volume=91|issue=860|page=287|publisher=Essex Institute|jstor = 2458911|title=The Origin of the Larva and Metamorphosis in Amphibia | doi = 10.1086/281990|last1=Szarski|first1=Henryk |
In some primitive bony fishes and [[amphibians]], the [[larva]]e bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The American Naturalist|year=1957|volume=91|issue=860|page=287|publisher=Essex Institute|jstor = 2458911|title=The Origin of the Larva and Metamorphosis in Amphibia | doi = 10.1086/281990|last1=Szarski|first1=Henryk}}</ref> These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by [[lung]]s in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of [[tetrapod]]s.<ref name=Gaining_ground>Clack, J. A. (2002): Gaining ground: the origin and evolution of tetrapods. ''Indiana University Press'', Bloomington, Indiana. 369 pp</ref> |
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=== Cartilaginous fish === |
=== Cartilaginous fish === |
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===Effects of pollution=== |
===Effects of pollution=== |
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Fish can [[bioaccumulate]] pollutants that are discharged into waterways. [[Estrogenic]] compounds found in pesticides, birth control, plastics, plants, fungi, bacteria, and synthetic drugs leeched into rivers are affecting the [[endocrine system]]s of native species.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pinto|first1=Patricia|last2=Estevao|first2=Maria|last3=Power|first3=Deborah|title=Effects of Estrogens and Estrogenic Disrupting Compounds on Fish Mineralized Tissues|journal=Marine Drugs|date=August 2014|volume=12|issue=8|pages=4474–94|doi=10.3390/md12084474|pmid=25196834|pmc=4145326 |
Fish can [[bioaccumulate]] pollutants that are discharged into waterways. [[Estrogenic]] compounds found in pesticides, birth control, plastics, plants, fungi, bacteria, and synthetic drugs leeched into rivers are affecting the [[endocrine system]]s of native species.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pinto|first1=Patricia|last2=Estevao|first2=Maria|last3=Power|first3=Deborah|title=Effects of Estrogens and Estrogenic Disrupting Compounds on Fish Mineralized Tissues|journal=Marine Drugs|date=August 2014|volume=12|issue=8|pages=4474–94|doi=10.3390/md12084474|pmid=25196834|pmc=4145326}}</ref> In Boulder, Colorado, [[white sucker]] fish found downstream of a municipal waste water treatment plant exhibit impaired or abnormal sexual development. The fish have been exposed to higher levels of estrogen, and leading to feminized fish.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Waterman|first1=Jim|title=Research into wastewater treatment effluent impact on Boulder Creek fish sexual development|url=http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/topical/haa.html|website=Boulder Area Sustainability Information Network}}</ref> Males display female reproductive organs, and both sexes have reduced fertility, and a higher hatch mortality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Arukwe|first1=Augustine|title=Cellular and Molecular Responses to Endocrine-Modulators and The Impact on Fish Reproduction|journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin|date=August 2001|volume=42|issue=8|pages=643–655 |doi=10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00062-5|pmid=11525282}}</ref> |
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Freshwater habitats in the United States are widely contaminated by the common pesticide [[atrazine]].<ref name=Reeves2015>{{cite journal | last1 = Reeves | first1 = C | year = 2015 | title = Of Frogs & Rhetoric: The Atrazine wars | url = https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/954| journal = Technical Communication Quarterly | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 328–348 | doi = 10.1080/10572252.2015.1079333 | s2cid = 53626955 }}</ref> There is controversy over the degree to which this pesticide harms the endocrine systems of freshwater fish and [[Atrazine#Amphibians|amphibians]]. Non-industry-funded researchers consistently report harmful effects while industry-funded researchers consistently report no harmful effects.<ref name=Reeves2015 /><ref>{{cite journal |title=The problem of biased data and potential solutions for health and environmental assessments |journal=Human and Ecological Risk Assessment |year=2015 |last1=Suter |first1=Glenn |last2=Cormier |first2=Susan |volume=21 |issue=7 |doi=10.1080/10807039.2014.974499 |pages=1–17|s2cid=84723794 }}</ref><ref>Rohr, J.R. (2018) "Atrazine and Amphibians: A Story of Profits, Controversy, and Animus". In: D. A. DellaSala, and M. I. Goldstein (eds.) ''Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene'', volume 5, pages 141–148. Oxford: Elsevier.</ref> |
Freshwater habitats in the United States are widely contaminated by the common pesticide [[atrazine]].<ref name=Reeves2015>{{cite journal | last1 = Reeves | first1 = C | year = 2015 | title = Of Frogs & Rhetoric: The Atrazine wars | url = https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/954| journal = Technical Communication Quarterly | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 328–348 | doi = 10.1080/10572252.2015.1079333 | s2cid = 53626955 }}</ref> There is controversy over the degree to which this pesticide harms the endocrine systems of freshwater fish and [[Atrazine#Amphibians|amphibians]]. Non-industry-funded researchers consistently report harmful effects while industry-funded researchers consistently report no harmful effects.<ref name=Reeves2015 /><ref>{{cite journal |title=The problem of biased data and potential solutions for health and environmental assessments |journal=Human and Ecological Risk Assessment |year=2015 |last1=Suter |first1=Glenn |last2=Cormier |first2=Susan |volume=21 |issue=7 |doi=10.1080/10807039.2014.974499 |pages=1–17|s2cid=84723794 }}</ref><ref>Rohr, J.R. (2018) "Atrazine and Amphibians: A Story of Profits, Controversy, and Animus". In: D. A. DellaSala, and M. I. Goldstein (eds.) ''Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene'', volume 5, pages 141–148. Oxford: Elsevier.</ref> |
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Most fish move by alternately contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone. These contractions form S-shaped curves that move down the body. As each curve reaches the [[Caudal fin|back fin]], backward force is applied to the water, and in conjunction with the fins, moves the fish forward. The [[Fish fin|fish's fins]] function like an airplane's flaps. Fins also increase the tail's surface area, increasing speed. The streamlined body of the fish decreases the amount of friction from the water. |
Most fish move by alternately contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone. These contractions form S-shaped curves that move down the body. As each curve reaches the [[Caudal fin|back fin]], backward force is applied to the water, and in conjunction with the fins, moves the fish forward. The [[Fish fin|fish's fins]] function like an airplane's flaps. Fins also increase the tail's surface area, increasing speed. The streamlined body of the fish decreases the amount of friction from the water. |
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A typical characteristic of many animals that utilize undulatory locomotion is that they have segmented muscles, or blocks of [[myomere]]s, running from their head to tails which are separated by connective tissue called myosepta. In addition, some segmented muscle groups, such the lateral hypaxial musculature in the salamander are oriented at an angle to the longitudinal direction. For these obliquely oriented fibers the strain in the longitudinal direction is greater than the strain in the muscle fiber direction leading to an architectural gear ratio greater than 1. A higher initial angle of orientation and more dorsoventral bulging produces a faster muscle contraction but results in a lower amount of force production.<ref name="Azizi1">{{cite journal |last1=Brainerd |first1=E. L. |last2=Azizi |first2=E. |year=2005 |title=Muscle Fiber Angle, Segment Bulging and Architectural Gear Ratio in Segmented Musculature |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=208 |issue=17 |pages=3249–3261 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01770 |pmid=16109887|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is hypothesized that animals employ a variable gearing mechanism that allows self-regulation of force and velocity to meet the mechanical demands of the contraction.<ref name="gearing">{{cite journal |last1=Azizi |first1=E. |last2=Brainerd |first2=E. L. |last3=Roberts |first3=T. J. |year=2008 |title=Variable Gearing in Pennate Muscles |journal=PNAS |volume=105 |issue=5 |pages=1745–1750 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0709212105 |pmid=18230734 |pmc=2234215|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.1745A |
A typical characteristic of many animals that utilize undulatory locomotion is that they have segmented muscles, or blocks of [[myomere]]s, running from their head to tails which are separated by connective tissue called myosepta. In addition, some segmented muscle groups, such the lateral hypaxial musculature in the salamander are oriented at an angle to the longitudinal direction. For these obliquely oriented fibers the strain in the longitudinal direction is greater than the strain in the muscle fiber direction leading to an architectural gear ratio greater than 1. A higher initial angle of orientation and more dorsoventral bulging produces a faster muscle contraction but results in a lower amount of force production.<ref name="Azizi1">{{cite journal |last1=Brainerd |first1=E. L. |last2=Azizi |first2=E. |year=2005 |title=Muscle Fiber Angle, Segment Bulging and Architectural Gear Ratio in Segmented Musculature |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=208 |issue=17 |pages=3249–3261 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01770 |pmid=16109887|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is hypothesized that animals employ a variable gearing mechanism that allows self-regulation of force and velocity to meet the mechanical demands of the contraction.<ref name="gearing">{{cite journal |last1=Azizi |first1=E. |last2=Brainerd |first2=E. L. |last3=Roberts |first3=T. J. |year=2008 |title=Variable Gearing in Pennate Muscles |journal=PNAS |volume=105 |issue=5 |pages=1745–1750 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0709212105 |pmid=18230734 |pmc=2234215|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.1745A }}</ref> When a [[pennate muscle]] is subjected to a low force, resistance to width changes in the muscle cause it to rotate which consequently produce a higher architectural gear ratio (AGR) (high velocity).<ref name="gearing"/> However, when subject to a high force, the perpendicular fiber force component overcomes the resistance to width changes and the muscle compresses producing a lower AGR (capable of maintaining a higher force output).<ref name="gearing"/> |
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Most fishes bend as a simple, homogenous beam during swimming via contractions of longitudinal red muscle fibers and obliquely oriented white muscle fibers within the segmented axial musculature. The fiber [[Deformation (mechanics)#Engineering strain|strain]] (εf) experienced by the longitudinal red muscle fibers is equivalent to the longitudinal strain (εx). The deeper white muscle fibers fishes show diversity in arrangement. These fibers are organized into cone-shaped structures and attach to connective tissue sheets known as myosepta; each fiber shows a characteristic dorsoventral (α) and mediolateral (φ) trajectory. The segmented architecture theory predicts that, εx > εf. This phenomenon results in an architectural gear ratio, determined as longitudinal strain divided by fiber strain (εx / εf), greater than one and longitudinal velocity amplification; furthermore, this emergent velocity amplification may be augmented by variable architectural gearing via mesolateral and dorsoventral shape changes, a pattern seen in [[pennate muscle]] contractions. A red-to-white gearing ratio (red εf / white εf) captures the combined effect of the longitudinal red muscle fiber and oblique white muscle fiber strains.<ref name="Azizi1"/><ref name="Azizi2">{{cite journal |last1=Brainerd |first1=E. L. |last2=Azizi |first2=E. |year=2007 |title=Architectural Gear Ratio and Muscle Fiber Strain Homogeneity in Segmented Musculature |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |volume=307 |issue=A |pages=145–155 |doi=10.1002/jez.a.358|pmid=17397068 }}</ref> |
Most fishes bend as a simple, homogenous beam during swimming via contractions of longitudinal red muscle fibers and obliquely oriented white muscle fibers within the segmented axial musculature. The fiber [[Deformation (mechanics)#Engineering strain|strain]] (εf) experienced by the longitudinal red muscle fibers is equivalent to the longitudinal strain (εx). The deeper white muscle fibers fishes show diversity in arrangement. These fibers are organized into cone-shaped structures and attach to connective tissue sheets known as myosepta; each fiber shows a characteristic dorsoventral (α) and mediolateral (φ) trajectory. The segmented architecture theory predicts that, εx > εf. This phenomenon results in an architectural gear ratio, determined as longitudinal strain divided by fiber strain (εx / εf), greater than one and longitudinal velocity amplification; furthermore, this emergent velocity amplification may be augmented by variable architectural gearing via mesolateral and dorsoventral shape changes, a pattern seen in [[pennate muscle]] contractions. A red-to-white gearing ratio (red εf / white εf) captures the combined effect of the longitudinal red muscle fiber and oblique white muscle fiber strains.<ref name="Azizi1"/><ref name="Azizi2">{{cite journal |last1=Brainerd |first1=E. L. |last2=Azizi |first2=E. |year=2007 |title=Architectural Gear Ratio and Muscle Fiber Strain Homogeneity in Segmented Musculature |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |volume=307 |issue=A |pages=145–155 |doi=10.1002/jez.a.358|pmid=17397068 }}</ref> |
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