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=== Natural enemies === |
=== Natural enemies === |
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More than 100 insect species prey on ''H. zea'', usually feeding on eggs and larvae.<ref name="Elzen_2001" /> The [[Orius insidiosus|insidious flower bug]] (''Orius insidiosus''), a [[pirate bug]], feeds on the eggs of ''H. zea'', thus acting as a [[biological control]] agent.<ref name="Elzen_2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Elzen GW | title = Lethal and sublethal effects of insecticide residues on Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and Geocoris punctipes (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) | journal = Journal of Economic Entomology | volume = 94 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–9 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11233133 | doi = 10.1603/0022-0493-94.1.55 | s2cid = 25140961 |
More than 100 insect species prey on ''H. zea'', usually feeding on eggs and larvae.<ref name="Elzen_2001" /> The [[Orius insidiosus|insidious flower bug]] (''Orius insidiosus''), a [[pirate bug]], feeds on the eggs of ''H. zea'', thus acting as a [[biological control]] agent.<ref name="Elzen_2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Elzen GW | title = Lethal and sublethal effects of insecticide residues on Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and Geocoris punctipes (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) | journal = Journal of Economic Entomology | volume = 94 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–9 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11233133 | doi = 10.1603/0022-0493-94.1.55 | s2cid = 25140961 }}</ref> Some plants emit a blend of chemicals in response to damage from ''H. zea'', which attract [[parasitic]] insects.<ref name="De_Moraes_1998" /> ''[[Cardiochiles nigriceps]], ''a solitary [[endoparasitoid]] [[wasp]], makes use of these volatile plant compounds to identify the presence of ''H. zea''.<ref name="De_Moraes_1998" /><ref name="Tillman_2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tillman PG, Mullinix BG | title = Comparison of host-searching and ovipositional behavior of Cardiochiles nigriceps Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid of Heliothis virescens (Fabricius)(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in tobacco and cotton. | journal = Journal of Insect Behavior | date = July 2003 | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 555–69 | doi = 10.1023/A:1027359408221 | s2cid = 1787948 }}</ref> When the wasps find damaged host plants, they hover around and then search for the host with their [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. When the females find their prey, they use their antennae to position themselves and deposit eggs into the host.<ref name="De_Moraes_1998">{{cite journal | vauthors = De Moraes CM, Lewis WJ, Pare PW, Alborn HT, Tumlinson JH | title = Herbivore-infested plants selectively attract parasitoids. | journal = Nature | date = June 1998 | volume = 393 | issue = 6685 | pages = 570–3 | doi = 10.1038/31219 | bibcode = 1998Natur.393..570D | s2cid = 4346152 }}</ref><ref name="Tillman_2003" /> The braconid wasp ''[[Microplitis croceipes]]'', which deposits its eggs inside a living [[caterpillar]], is also an important [[parasitoid]] of both ''H. zea'' and the related species ''[[Heliothis virescens]]''.<ref name="Tillman_2003" /> When larval densities are high, a [[fungal]] [[pathogen]], ''[[Nomuraea rileyi]]'', can cause an outbreak of [[disease]].<ref name="Tillman_2003" /> However, pupal mortality is high not because of predators, but because of harsh weather conditions, collapsing pupal chambers, and disease.<ref name="Tillman_2003" /> |
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=== Larval predation === |
=== Larval predation === |
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