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{{Short description|Species of aquatic flowering plant}}
{{redirect-multi|2|Lotus Flower|Lotus Blossom}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Sacred lotus Nelumbo nucifera.jpg
| image_caption = Lotus flower
| genus = Nelumbo
| species = nucifera
| authority = [[Joseph Gaertner|Gaertn.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Nelumbium speciosum'' [[Carl Ludwig Willdenow|Willd.]]
* ''Nelumbo komarovii'' [[Alexander Alfonsovich Grossheim|Grossh.]]
* ''Nymphaea nelumbo''
}}
[[File:British 19th Century, East Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), late 19th century, NGA 52325.jpg|alt=drawing of the east Indian lotus, gouache on oriental paper|thumb|British 19th century, East Indian Lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera''), late 19th century, [[National Gallery of Art]], NGA 52325]]

'''''Nelumbo nucifera''''', also known as '''sacred lotus''', '''Indian lotus''',<ref>{{cite web |title=Sacred Lotus |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/sacred-lotus |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=4 May 2023 }}</ref> or simply '''lotus''', is one of two [[extant taxon|extant]] species of aquatic plant in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Nelumbonaceae]]. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the family [[Nymphaeaceae]].<ref>Janice Glimn-Lacy, Peter B. Kaufman, ''Botany Illustrated: Introduction to Plants, Major Groups, Flowering Plant Families'', p. 79, 2006, Springer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=oGCsQhPbLGYC&dq=nelumbo+water+lily+-planner&pg=PT170 google books]</ref>

Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the [[flood plain]]s of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife, the remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pond [[silt]]s in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony.

Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300&nbsp;years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.2.236 |title=Long-living lotus: Germination and soil -irradiation of centuries-old fruits, and cultivation, growth, and phenotypic abnormalities of offspring |year=2002 |last1=Shen-Miller |first1=J. |last2=Schopf |first2=J. W. |last3=Harbottle |first3=G. |last4=Cao |first4=R.-j. |last5=Ouyang |first5=S. |last6=Zhou |first6=K.-s. |last7=Southon |first7=J. R. |last8=Liu |first8=G.-h. |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=236–47 |pmid=21669732}}</ref> Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of [[longevity]].

It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to {{convert|1400|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}} in the southern Himalayas<ref name=Mukherjee2010>{{cite journal |author1=Pulok K. Mukherjee |author2=Debajyoti Mukherjee |author3=Amal K. Maji |author4=S. Rai |author5=Michael Heinrich |year=2010 |title=The sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)– phytochemical and therapeutic profile |journal=Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=407–422 |doi=10.1211/jpp.61.04.0001 |pmid=19298686 |s2cid=85342386 |doi-access=free }}</ref>), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the [[Amur region]]; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as "''Nelumbo komarovii''"), with isolated locations at the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Zhang2015">{{cite journal |author1=Yi Zhang |author2=Xu Lu |author3=Shaoxiao Zeng |author4=Xuhui Huang |author5=Zebin Guo |author6=Yafeng Zheng |author7=Yuting Tian |author8=Baodong Zheng |year=2015 |title=Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: a review |journal=Phytochem Rev |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=321–334 |doi=10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9 |bibcode=2015PChRv..14..321Z |s2cid=16527010 }}</ref> Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations.<ref name="Zhang2015"/> It has a very long history ({{circa}} 3,000 years) of being [[Agriculture|cultivated]] for its edible seeds<ref name="Zhang2015"/> and is commonly cultivated in [[water garden]]s.<ref name=Mukherjee2010/> It is the [[National emblem|national flower]] of India and Vietnam.

==Classification==
{{See also|Nelumbo}}
The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of the genus ''[[Nymphaea]]'', in particular ''[[Nymphaea caerulea|N. caerulea]]'', the "blue lotus." In fact, several older systems, such as the [[Bentham & Hooker system]] (which is widely used in the Indian subcontinent), refer to the lotus by its old synonym, ''Nymphaea nelumbo''.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

While all modern [[plant taxonomy]] systems agree that this species belongs in the genus ''[[Nelumbo]]'', the systems disagree as to which family ''Nelumbo'' should be placed in or whether the genus should belong in its own unique family and order. According to the [[APG IV]] system, ''N. nucifera'', ''[[Nelumbo lutea|N. lutea]]'', and their extinct relatives belong in Proteales with the [[Proteaceae|protea flowers]]<ref name=APGIV>{{Cite journal |author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2016 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=181 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |issn=0024-4074 |doi=10.1111/boj.12385 |doi-access=free}}</ref> due to genetic comparisons. Older systems, such as the [[Cronquist system]], place ''N. nucifera'' and its relatives in the order Nymphaeles based on anatomical similarities.<ref name=cronquist>{{Cite web |url=http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/newgate/cron1ang.htm |title=Texas A and M University Bioinformatics Working Group : Cronquist System |access-date=2018-09-25 |archive-date=2014-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211040510/http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/newgate/cron1ang.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the APG IV classification, the closest relatives of ''Nelumbo'' include the sycamores ([[Platanaceae]]).

The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to {{convert|200|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth.<ref name="Kew">{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:605422-1 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> The [[peltate]] leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of {{convert|1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera – Gaertn. |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Nelumbo+nucifera |publisher=[[Plants for a Future]] |access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref><ref>Cook, Water Plants of the World (see below) loc. cit.</ref> The leaves may be as large as {{convert|80|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="RHS"/>

=== Flower ===
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to {{convert|35|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="RHS">{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera {{!}} sacred lotus |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/11438/Nelumbo-nucifera/Details |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=11 June 2019 |date=1999}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{cite journal |last=<not recorded> |date=January 13, 1934 |title=<not recorded> |journal=Gardener's Chronicle |volume=95 (third series) |issue=<not recorded> |pages=28–29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cook |first=Christopher D. K. |date=1974 |title=Water Plants of the World |location=The Hague, Netherlands |publisher=W. Junk Publisher |page=332 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hurley |first=Captain Frank |date=1924 |title=Pearls and Savages |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |page=385 plus photo and caption p. 368 }}</ref>

Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety ''qian ban lian'' ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in a single blossom<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.victoria-adventure.org/more_than_links/eigi_thousand_petals.html |title=Thousand Petals |last=Nitasaka |first=Eiji |date=n.d. |access-date=September 1, 2021 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and the Japanese variety ''ohmi myoren'' ("strange lotus") can have between 2000 and 5000 petals,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/nobuflickr/893593415/ |title=Ohmi-Myoren/ Rare Lotus- Flicker |last=<not stated> |date=July 25, 2007 |access-date=September 1, 2021 }}</ref> the greatest number recorded for any species of plant.

Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to [[Thermogenic plants|regulate]] the [[temperature]] of its [[flower]]s within a narrow range, just as humans and other [[warm-blooded]] animals do.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Yoon, Carol Kaesuk |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E4D7113CF932A35753C1A960958260 |title=Heat of Lotus Attracts Insects And Scientists |date=1996-10-01 |access-date=2012-11-14 |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the [[University of Adelaide]] in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the [[Adelaide Botanic Garden]]s maintained a temperature of {{convert|30|–|35|°C|°F}}, even when the air temperature dropped to {{convert|10|°C|°F}}. They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded]] [[insect]] [[pollinator]]s. Studies published in the journals ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' and ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences]]'' in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of [[thermoregulation]] in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include ''[[Symplocarpus foetidus]]''<ref name="thorington">{{cite journal |last1=Thorington |first1=Katherine K. |title=Pollination and Fruiting Success in the Eastern Skunk Cabbage |journal=The Journal of Biospheric Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |access-date=2022-02-02 |archive-date=2016-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224021947/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''[[Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum]]''.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water.

=== Seed ===
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ong |first=H.C. |editor-last1=Flach |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Rumawas |editor-first2=F. |year=1996 |chapter=Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner |title=Plant Resources of South-East Asia |location=Leiden, Netherlands |publisher=Backhuys Publishers |pages=131–133 |isbn=90-73348-51-X}}</ref>{{rp|132}} Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully [[germinated]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2445863 |author=Shen-Miller |year=1995 |last2=Mudgett |first2=M. B. |last3=William Schopf |first3=J. |last4=Clarke |first4=S. |last5=Berger |first5=R. |title=Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: Ancient sacred lotus from China |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |issue=11 |volume=82 |pages=1367–1380 |jstor=2445863 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shen-Miller, J. |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=236–247 |title=Long-living lotus: germination and soil gamma-irradiation of centuries-old fruits, and cultivation, growth, and phenotypic abnormalities of offspring |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.2.236 |quote=Sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'') has been cultivated as a crop in Asia for thousands of years. A ≈1300-year-old lotus fruit, recovered from an originally cultivated but now dry lakebed in northeastern China, is the oldest germinated and directly 14C-dated fruit known. In 1996, we traveled to the dry lake at Xipaozi Village, China, the source of the old viable fruits. |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |year=2002 |pmid=21669732}}</ref>

The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to ''[[Nymphaea caerulea]]'', but possesses similar chemistry. Both ''Nymphaea caerulea'' and ''Nelumbo nucifera'' contain the alkaloids [[nuciferine]] and [[aporphine]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The [[genome]] of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ming |first1=Ray |last2=VanBuren |first2=Robert |last3=Liu |first3=Yanling |last4=Yang |first4=Mei |last5=Han |first5=Yuepeng |display-authors=etal |year=2013 |title=Genome of the long-living sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) |journal=Genome Biology |volume=14 |issue=5 |page=R41 |doi=10.1186/gb-2013-14-5-r41 |pmid=23663246 |pmc=4053705 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sacred Lotus Genome Sequence Enlightens Scientists |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130510180252.htm |newspaper=Science Daily |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists sequence genome of 'sacred lotus,' which likely holds anti-aging secrets |author=Wolpert, Stuart |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/scientists-sequence-genome-of-245577.aspx |newspaper=UCLA Newsroom |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref> A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then.

== Cultivation ==
The sacred lotus grows in water up to {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} deep. The minimum water depth is about {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}}. In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and [[flower]]ing. The sacred lotus [[Germination|germinates]] at temperatures above {{convert|13|C}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Sou |first1=S. Y. |last2=Fujishige |first2=N. |date=1995 |title=Cultivation comparison of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) between China and Japan |journal=Journal of Zhejiang Agricultural Sciences |volume=4 |pages=187–189}}</ref> Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA [[hardiness zone]]s 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |title=Dictionary of Gardening |date=1992 |publisher=Macmillan Press |others=Huxley, Anthony, 1920–1992., Griffiths, Mark, 1963–, Royal Horticultural Society |isbn=978-0-333-47494-5 |location=London |oclc=25202760}}</ref> In the [[growing season]], from April to September (in the [[Northern Hemisphere|northern hemisphere]]), the average daytime temperature needed is {{convert|23|to|27|C}}.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Vegetables |last=Phillips |first=Roger |date=1995 |publisher=Macmillan |others=Rix, Martyn |isbn=978-0-333-62640-5 |location=London |oclc=32465255 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/vegetables0000phil }}</ref> In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of [[dormancy]]. The [[tuber]]s are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below {{convert|0|C}}.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |title=Container production and post-harvest handling of Lotus (Nelumbo) and Micropropagation of herbaceous Peony (Paeonia) |last=Tian |first=Daike |publisher=Auburn University |year=2008 |location=Auburn }}</ref> If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with [[vermiculite]] or [[perlite]]. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Masuda |first1=Junichiro |last2=Urakawa |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Ozaki |first3=Yukio |last4=Okubo |first4=Hiroshi |date=2006-01-01 |title=Short Photoperiod Induces Dormancy in Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=39–45 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcj008 |pmid=16287906 |pmc=2000761}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:605422-1 |title=Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. {{!}} Plants of the World Online |publisher=Kew Science |access-date=2017-11-19}}</ref>

=== Planting ===
The sacred lotus requires a [[nutrient]]-rich and [[loam]]y soil.<ref name=":8" /> In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Daike |last2=Tilt |first2=Ken M. |last3=Sibley |first3=Jeff L. |last4=Woods |first4=Floyd M. |last5=Dane |first5=Fenny |date=2009-06-01 |title=Response of Lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) to Planting Time and Disbudding |journal=HortScience |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=656–659 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.44.3.656 |doi-access=free}}</ref> a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds<ref>{{Cite book |title=Flowering plants, dicotyledons: magnoliid, hamamelid, and caryophyllid families |others=Kubitzki, Klaus, 1933-, Rohwer, J. G. (Jens G.), 1958–, Bittrich, V. (Volker), 1954– |isbn=978-3-642-08141-5 |location=Berlin |oclc=861705944 |last1=Kubitzki |first1=Klaus |last2=Rohwer |first2=Jens G. |last3=Bittrich |first3=Volker |date=2011-01-28}}</ref> or directly into a flooded field.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants |last=Lim |first=T. K. |date=2016 |publisher=Springer, Cham |isbn=978-3-319-26061-7 |pages=55–109 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-26062-4_5 |chapter=Nelumbo nucifera}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=La-ongsri |first1=Woranuch |last2=Trisonthi |first2=Chusie |last3=Balslev |first3=Henrik |date=2009-08-01 |title=Management and use of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn. in Thai wetlands |journal=Wetlands Ecology and Management |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=279–289 |doi=10.1007/s11273-008-9106-6 |bibcode=2009WetEM..17..279L |s2cid=25530088 |issn=0923-4861}}</ref> There are several other propagation ways via [[seed]]s or [[bud]]s.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, [[tissue culture]] is a promising propagation method for the future to produce high volumes of uniform, [[True to type|true-to-type]], disease-free materials.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |title=Exporting lotus to Asia : An agronomic and physiological study: a report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation |last1=Nguyen |first1=Q.V. |last2=Hicks |first2=D. |author3=Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (Australia) |author3-link=Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation |author4=Asian Foods Research and Development |date=2001 |publisher=RIRDC |isbn=978-0-642-58254-6 |location=[[Barton, Australian Capital Territory|Barton, A.C.T.]] |oclc=52647644}}</ref>

The first step of the cultivation is to [[plough]] the dry field. One round of [[manure]] is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low<ref name=":10" /> and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately {{convert|4,000|/ha|/acre}} with grid spacing of {{convert|1.2x2|m|ftin|0}}<ref name=":11" /> are used to plant directly into the [[mud]] {{convert|10–15|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} below the [[Topsoil|soil surface]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=Root crops|last=Kay |first=Daisy E. |year=1987 |publisher=Tropical Development and Research Institute |isbn=978-0-85954-200-5 |edition=2nd |location=London |oclc=19298279}}</ref>

The [[stolon]] is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.<ref name=":10" />

The first [[Leaf|leaves]] and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during the colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months.<ref name=":10" />

Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After [[Food drying|sun drying]] for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":5" />

The rhizomes mature to a suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months.<ref name=":12" /> Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of herbs & their uses |last=Deni. |first=Bown |date=1995 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |others=Herb Society of America. |isbn=978-0-7894-0184-7 |edition=1st American |location=London |oclc=32166152 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhe00bown}}</ref> The large, [[starch]]-rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil.<ref name=":10" /> In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools.<ref name=":5" /> In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting is fully replaced by machines.<ref name=":7" />

=== Varieties and cultivars ===
Lotus [[Variety (botany)|varieties]] have been classified according to their use into three types: [[rhizome]] lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature.<ref name=":11" /> Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with {{convert|200000|ha|abbr=on}}, followed by seed lotus with {{convert|20000|ha|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Guo |first=H. B. |date=2009-05-01 |title=Cultivation of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. ssp. nucifera) and its utilization in China |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=323–330 |doi=10.1007/s10722-008-9366-2 |s2cid=19718393 |issn=0925-9864}}</ref>

==== Rhizome lotus ====
Rhizome lotus cultivars produce a higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":11" />

[[Cultivar]]s can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types:
* Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.<ref name=":6" />
* [[Adlittoral]], deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from {{convert|10|to|20|cm|abbr=on}} depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good for [[frying]] purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes are [[starch]]-rich.<ref name=":6" />
The main popular ''Nelumbo nucifera'' cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September.<ref name=":6" /> In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in [[Guangdong]] and [[Japan]], the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.<ref name=":11" />

==== Seed lotus ====
[[File:Nelumbo nucifera5.jpg|200px|thumb|''Nelumbo nucifera'' seed head]]
The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number of [[Gynoecium|carpels]] and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes.<ref name=":11" /> The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between {{convert|1020|and|1800|g|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":6" /> Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia.<ref name=":11" />

==== Flower lotus ====
Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively for [[Ornamental plant|ornamental purpose]], producing many flowers and the lowest plant height.<ref name=":6" />

The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in the number of [[petal]]s (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights.<ref name=":11" />

The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as [[Morrison Polkinghorne]] to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aussie artist turning pagoda flowers into art |url=https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle-arts-culture/aussie-artist-turning-pagoda-flowers-art |author=Pann Rethea |date=22 March 2020 |publisher=Phenon Penh Post}}</ref>

One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of ''N. nucifera'' sized between {{convert|5 and 8|cm|in|frac=}}. Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of [[petal]]s, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the [[rhizome]], their [[seed]]s are often too small or too hard to be eatable.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihuhua.com/huahui/wanlian.html |access-date=2021-09-07 |title=碗莲_碗莲的养殖方法 |language=zh}}</ref>

The sacred lotus may be crossed with the [[yellow lotus]] to produce [[interspecific hybrid]]s. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI15757-21 |title='Jiang Luopao': A Nelumbo Cultivar with Deep Purple-red and Bowl-shaped Flowers |year=2021 |last1=Du |first1=Fengfeng |last2=Liu |first2=Xiaojing |last3=Chang |first3=Yajun |last4=Li |first4=Naiwei |last5=Ding |first5=Yuesheng |last6=Yao |first6=Dongrui |journal=HortScience |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=847–848 |s2cid=236278282 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Farming ===
About 70% of lotus for human consumption is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at {{convert|300000|ha}}.<ref name=":5" /> A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields like [[rice]].<ref name=":6" />

The most widely used system is [[crop rotation]] with rice and [[vegetable]]s. This system is applicable if the [[propagule]] (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in the same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays either [[fallow|free]] or [[wikt:terricolous|terricolous]] vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after the [[harvest]] of the lotus.<ref name=":6" />

Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotus [[rhizome]], although it is ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between the rhizomes into the [[Drainage|drained field]]. The rhizomes are then harvested next March.<ref name=":6" />

A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such as [[fish]], [[shrimp]], or [[crab]] in the same field.<ref name=":6" /> A more efficient use of the water for both, the [[aquatic animal]] and the lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Assessing lotus for wastewater bioremediation |date=2009 |publisher=Rural Industries Research and Development Corp |others=Seymour, Evizel., Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (Australia) |isbn=978-1-74151-888-7 |location=Canberra |oclc=682913738}}</ref>

== Use ==
[[File:Lotus Nelumbo nucifera Water Drops 2654px.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Lotus effect]] on ''nelumbo nucifera'' hybrid]]

=== Culinary ===
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2018}}

==== Rhizomes ====
[[File:Lotus root.jpg|thumb|Lotus [[rhizome]]s]]
[[File:JaRenkonLotus11R.jpg|thumb|Boiled, sliced lotus roots used in various Asian cuisines]]

The [[rhizome]]s of lotus ({{Lang-zh|t=|c=蓮藕|p=lián-ǒu}}, {{Lang-ja|蓮根|translit=renkon}}, {{Lang-ko|연군or蓮根|translit=yeongun}}, {{Lang-hi|कमल ककड़ी|translit=kamala kakaṛī}}, [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] Beeh, {{Lang-te|అల్లిదుంప|translit=alli'dumpa}})<ref>[https://andhrabharati.com/dictionary/index.php?w=%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF], Andhra Bharati Dictionary; Lotus-root - అల్లిదుంప; అల్లికాయ.</ref> are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan ([[Sindh]]), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or [[Pickling|pickled]] in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic).<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=YU |first1=Xin |display-authors=etal |year=2002 |title=Progress in the Research on Post-harvest Physiology and Storage Techniques of Nelumbo nucifera gaertn [J]. |journal=Guangzhou Food Science and Technology |volume=3 |page=019 }}</ref><ref name=":19">Tian, N., et al. "Isolation and preparation of flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn by preparative reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography."&nbsp;''Se pu= Chinese journal of chromatography''&nbsp;25.1 (2007): 88–92.</ref> Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits.<ref name=":18" /> Salads with [[prawn]]s, [[sesame oil]] or [[coriander]] leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fast [[food browning|browning]] rate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=X. |last2=Jiang |first2=Y. |last3=Li |first3=Y. |last4=Lin |first4=W. |year=2003 |title=Effects of 4-hexylresorcinol (4-HR) on browning and quality of fresh-cut lotus |journal=Food Science |volume=24 |pages=142–145 }}</ref><ref>M.A.&nbsp;Rojas-Graüa,&nbsp;M.S.&nbsp;Tapiab,&nbsp;O.&nbsp;Martín-Bellosoa. Using polysaccharide-based edible coatings to maintain the quality of fresh-cut&nbsp;Fuji apples. LWT Food Science and Technology,&nbsp;41&nbsp;(2008), pp.&nbsp;139–147</ref> [[Lotus root tea]] is consumed in Korea.

Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as ''kamala kakaṛī'' in [[Hindi]]) is cooked as a dry curry or [[Curry|Sabzî]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 December 2020 |title=9 Nutritious Lotus Root Recipes To Try |url=https://www.honestfoodtalks.com/lotus-root-recipes-renkon/ |website=Honest Food Talks}}</ref>

Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsuchiya |first1=T. |last2=Nohara |first2=S. |year=1989 |title=Growth and life span of the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. in lake Kasumigaura, Japan |journal=Aquatic Botany |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1016/0304-3770(89)90094-6 |bibcode=1989AqBot..36...87T }}</ref>

Rhizomes contain high amounts of [[starch]] (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.<ref>Mukherjee PK.&nbsp;et al.&nbsp;Isolation, estimation and characterization of starch from rhizomes of&nbsp;Nelumbo nuciferaGaertn (Fam. Nymphaeaceae).&nbsp;Ind Drugs&nbsp;1995;&nbsp;32:&nbsp;392–397.</ref> The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an [[adjuvant]] in the [[Tablet (pharmacy)|preparation of tablets]].<ref>Mukherjee PK.&nbsp;et al.&nbsp;Pharmaceutical application of starch isolated from&nbsp;Nelumbo nucifera&nbsp;Gaertn. (Fam. Nymphaeaceae).&nbsp;Ind J Pharm Sci&nbsp;1996;&nbsp;58:&nbsp;59–66.</ref> When dried, ''N. nucifera'' is also made into [[flour]], another popular use of this vegetable.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" />

==== Pips ====
[[Lotus pip tea]] is consumed in Korea.

==== Seeds ====
[[File:Lotus fruit seeds.jpg|thumb|Fresh lotus seeds ready to eat]]
{{Main|Lotus seed}}

Fresh lotus seeds ({{zh|s=[[wikt:莲子|莲子]]|t=[[wikt:蓮子|蓮子]]|p=liánzǐ|cy=lìhnjí}}) are nutritious but also vulnerable to [[Food contaminant|microbial contamination]], especially fungal infections. Therefore, mostly dry lotus seed-based products are found on the market. Traditional sun baking combined with charcoal processing dries the seeds but results in a loss of nutrients. [[Freeze-drying|Freeze-dried]] lotus seeds have a longer [[shelf life]] and maintain original nutrients, while no differences in flavour are found after rehydration compared to fresh lotus seeds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=He |first1=J |last2=Cheng |first2=W |last3=Chen |first3=X |last4=Wen |first4=S |last5=Zhang |first5=G |last6=Xiong |first6=G |last7=Ye |first7=L |last8=Chen |first8=Y |year=2006 |title=Study on the vacuum sublimation freezing-drying of lotus seeds |journal=Hubei Agric Sci |volume=45 |pages=240–244 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Y |last2=Zhang |first2=Y |last3=Zeng |first3=S |last4=Zheng |first4=Y |last5=Chen |first5=F |last6=Guo |first6=Z |last7=Lin |first7=Y |last8=Zheng |first8=B |year=2012b |title=Optimization of microwave vacuum drying of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds by response surface methodology |journal=Food Sci Technol Int |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=477–488 |doi=10.1177/1082013211433071 |pmid=23144241 |s2cid=42335541 }}</ref>

Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and [[Mold (fungus)|mold infestation]]; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds,&nbsp;such as [[food irradiation|radiation processing]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhat |first1=R |last2=Sridhar |first2=KR |last3=Karim |first3=AA |last4=Young |first4=CC |last5=Arun |first5=AB |year=2009 |title=Influence of c-radiation on the nutritional and functional qualities of lotus seed flour |journal=J Agric Food Chem |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=9524–9531 |doi=10.1021/jf902287e |pmid=19778060 }}</ref>

Lotus seeds can be processed into [[Mooncake|moon cake]], lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of [[Lotus seed paste|paste]], fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (''phool makhana''), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds.<ref name="auto">Wu C, Xia Y, Tang X (2013) Optimization of the fermentation process for lotus rice-wine production by response surface methodology. Mod Food Sci Technol 29:1675–1679</ref><ref name=":16" /> [[Lotus seed tea]] is consumed in Korea, and [[lotus embryo tea]] is consumed in China and Vietnam.<ref name=":16" />

==== Stems ====
Young lotus [[Plant stem|stems]] are used as a salad ingredient in [[Vietnamese cuisine]] and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as ''keang som sai bua'' ({{lang-th|แกงส้มสายบัว}}, lotus stem sour soup) and ''keang kati sai bua'' ({{lang|th|แกงกะทิสายบัว}}, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).

In northern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, ''kamal gatte ki sabji'' ({{Lang-hi|कमल गट्टे की सब्जी)|translit=}} and an appetizer, ''kamal kakdi pakode'' ({{Lang-hi|कमल ककडी पकौडे}}). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In Kerala ({{Lang-ml|താമര}}) and Tamil Nadu, this end product is called ''thamara vathal''.

In the [[Philippines]], an indigenous variety called ''tukal'' is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season.

==== Leaves ====
[[File:Cỗ_trung_thu.JPG|thumb|right|Vietnamese-style green young rice ([[cốm]]) wrapped in lotus leaves, traditionally consumed with ripe bananas and tea during autumn at the beginning of the rice harvest]]
In China and Korea, [[Lotus tea#lotus leaf tea|lotus leaf tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연잎차|translit=yeon'ip-cha}}) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming [[rice]] and [[sticky rice]] and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as ''[[lo mai gai]]'' in Chinese cuisine or ''[[kao hor bai bua]]'' ({{Lang-th|ข้าวห่อใบบัว}}), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine.

Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, ''[[cốm]]'', which is eaten in [[autumn]]. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice.

==== Flowers ====
[[File:Yeonkkot-cha.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus flower tea]]]]

In Korea, [[lotus flower tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연꽃차|translit=yeon'kkot-cha}}) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus.

The [[stamen]]s can be dried and made into a fragrant [[herbal tea]] ({{zh|t=[[wikt:蓮花|蓮花]][[wikt:茶|茶]]|p=liánhuā cha|cy=lìhnfāa chah}}), or used to impart a scent to [[tea]] leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This [[Vietnamese lotus tea]] is called ''trà sen'', ''chè sen'', or ''chè ướp sen''.

==== Risks ====
The petals, leaves, and [[rhizome]] can also all be eaten raw, but there is a risk of parasite transmission (e.g., ''[[Fasciolopsis buski]]''): it is therefore recommended that they be cooked before eating.

=== Use in water treatment ===
''Nelumbo nucifera'' shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |author1=Thongchai Kanabkaew |author2=Udomphon Puetpaiboon |date=2004 |title=Aquatic plants for domestic wastewater Treatment: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) systems |url=http://www.thaiscience.info/journals/Article/SONG/10462464.pdf |journal=Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol |volume=26 }}</ref> and heavy metals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |author1=H.M. Anawar |author2=A. Garcia-Sanchez |author3=M. Tari Kul Alam |author4=M. Majibur Rahman |date=2008 |title=Phytofiltration of water polluted with arsenic and heavy metals |url=http://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |journal=International Journal of Environment and Pollution |volume=33 |doi=10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |doi-broken-date=31 January 2024}}</ref><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Gallego |first1=S. M. |author2=M. P. Benavides |author3=M. L. Tomaro |date=1996 |title=Effect of heavy metal ion excess on sunflower leaves: evidence for involvement of oxidative stress |journal=Plant Science |volume=121 |issue=2 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1016/s0168-9452(96)04528-1 }}</ref> It is able to grow in variable water conditions<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iwgs.org/lotus-care-sheet/ |title=Lotus care sheet |date=16 December 2011 }}</ref> and in low light intensity.<ref name=":0" /> Various studies show the successful use of ''N. nucifera'' to counteract water [[eutrophication]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286218077 |title=Ecological restoration using Trapa bispinosa and Nelumbo nucifera on eutrophic water body in Baizangdian Lake |last=Liu |first=C.-Q. |date=December 2013 |journal=Wetland Science |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=510–514 }}</ref> The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses [[algae]] growth in ''N. nucifera'' aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.<ref name=":0" /> Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. ''N. nucifera'' is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as [[Pontederia crassipes|water hyacinth]]). It also assimilates nitrogen ("[[denitrification]]") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.<ref name=":0" /> Through [[rhizofiltration]], heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day [[incubation period]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|author=Virendra Mishra |date=2009 |title=Accumulation of Cadmium and Copper from Aqueous Solutions using Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) |journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=110–112 |doi=10.1579/0044-7447-38.2.110 |pmid=19431942 |bibcode=2009Ambio..38..110M |s2cid=43473128}}</ref> The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;<ref name=":2" /> however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.

=== Storage and commercialization ===
Currently, most rhizomes are consumed fresh, and it is not common to store them due to their poor [[shelf life]] performance.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Guo |first=H.B. |date=2009 |title=Cultivation of Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. spp. nucifera) and ist utilization in China |journal=Genet Resour Crop Evol |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=323–330 |doi=10.1007/s10722-008-9366-2 |s2cid=19718393 }}</ref> This limits export possibilities for low-income production countries in Asia. Rhizomes quickly lose water, oxidation occurs and nutrient composition changes within a short time after harvest. Optimal storage temperatures range between {{convert|5|and|8|C}}.<ref name=":4" /> There are three different approaches to storing rhizomes. By stacking the rhizomes, they are storable and remain fresh for about three weeks. Special stacking with silver sand{{clarify|date=April 2018}} and soil results in five to six layers that prevent water loss, thus, the rhizome stays fresh for up to two months.<ref name=":4" /> However, the method is not suitable for commercialization but rather for home use. Hydrogen sulfide [[fumigation]] reduces enzymatic browning and therefore ensures rhizome quality.<ref name=":3" /> Dipping the rhizomes in a salt solution prevents oxidation and bacterial reproduction, which allows storage for up to five months and greater export ability. This treatment is related to the high cost and inefficient cleaning process before eating the rhizomes.{{clarify|date=April 2018}}<ref name=":4" />

=== Use in bioengineering ===
''Nelumbo nucifera'' contains some thermal-stable proteins that might be useful in protein [[bioengineering]] processes. The proteins are characterized by seed longevity used for cell protection and repair under stress.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shen-Miller |first1=J. |last2=Lindner |first2=Petra |last3=Xie |first3=Yongming |last4=Villa |first4=Sarah |last5=Wooding |first5=Kerry |last6=Clarke |first6=Steven G. |last7=Loo |first7=Rachel R. O. |last8=Loo |first8=Joseph A. |date=2013-09-01 |title=Thermal-stable proteins of fruit of long-living Sacred Lotus Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn var. China Antique |journal=Tropical Plant Biology |volume=6 |issue=2–3 |page=69 |doi=10.1007/s12042-013-9124-2 |issn=1935-9756 |pmc=3869599 |pmid=24363819}}</ref> There are also several indications that compounds of ''N. nucifera'' are used in drug fabrication in human health research for multiple purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zi Xi |first=Lian |date=2011 |title=Neferine inhibits cultured hepatic stellate cell activation and facilitates apoptosis: a possible molecular mechanism |journal=Eur. J. Pharmacol. |volume=650 |issue=1 |pages=163–169 |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.025 |pmid=20969858}}</ref> Lotus leaves possess [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] characteristics, attributed to a waxy coat that prevents water from adhering to the surface. This attribute has influenced the conception of the "lotus effect" in [[biomimicry]] and engineering, guiding the design of materials that resist water and remain self-cleaning. Researchers at the [[National University of Singapore]] have utilized the water-repelling structure as inspiration for developing eAir, an aero-elastic sensor capable of detecting subtle pressure changes or other environmental stimuli.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wessling |first=Brianna |date=2023-08-19 |title=Lotus leaf-inspired sensors can detect minor pressure changes |url=https://www.therobotreport.com/lotus-leaf-inspired-sensors-can-detect-minor-pressure-changes/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |website=The Robot Report |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Other uses===
[[Image:IMG lotus-thread.JPG|thumb|Lotus thread is used to weave a special robe for the Buddha at [[Inle Lake]], Myanmar.]]The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of [[watering can]]s, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for dried [[Floristry|flower arranging]].

In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper for ''[[zongzi]]''). Lotus leaves are also used to serve food in various [[Culture|cultures]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Lotus Leaf |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food-news/5-leaves-used-for-serving-food-across-india-and-their-benefits/photostory/101152561.cms?picid=101152584 |access-date=2023-11-06 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

A unique fabric called [[lotus silk]], from the lotus plant fibers, is produced only at [[Inle Lake]], Myanmar, and in [[Siem Reap]], Cambodia. This thread is used for weaving special robes for [[Buddha]] images called ''kya thingan'' (lotus robe).

==Chemical composition==
The flavonol [[miquelianin]], as well as the alkaloids (+)-(1''R'')-[[coclaurine]] and (−)-(1''S'')-[[norcoclaurine]], can be found in the leaves of ''N. nucifera''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kashiwada |first1=Y. |last2=Aoshima |first2=A. |last3=Ikeshiro |first3=Y. |last4=Chen |first4=Y. P. |last5=Furukawa |first5=H. |last6=Itoigawa |first6=M. |last7=Fujioka |first7=T. |last8=Mihashi |first8=K. |last9=Cosentino |first9=L. M. |year=2005 |title=Anti-HIV benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera, and structure–activity correlations with related alkaloids |journal=Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=443–448 |doi=10.1016/j.bmc.2004.10.020 |pmid=15598565 |last10=Morris-Natschke |first10=S. L. |last11=Lee |first11=K. H.}}</ref> The plant also contains [[nuciferine]], neferine, and many other [[benzylisoquinoline alkaloids]] with medicinal properties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Menéndez-Perdomo |first1=Ivette M |last2=Facchini |first2=Peter J |date=November 2018 |title=Benzylisoquinoline Alkaloids Biosynthesis in Sacred Lotus |journal=Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=E2899 |doi=10.3390/molecules23112899 |issn=1420-3049 |pmid=30404216 |pmc=6278464 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Menendez-Perdomo, I. M. and P. J. Facchini (2020). "Isolation and characterization of two O-methyltransferases involved in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)." J Biol Chem 295(6): 1598–1612 doi:10.1074/jbc.RA119.011547
{{PMID|31914404}}</ref>

=== Health properties and nutrients ===
==== Traditional medicine ====
{{more medical citations needed|section|date=December 2017}}
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Lotus root, cooked, no salt
| water=81.42 g
| kJ=278
| protein=1.58 g
| fat=0.07 g
| carbs=16.02 g
| fiber=3.1 g
| sugars=0.50 g
| calcium_mg=26
| iron_mg=0.9
| magnesium_mg=22
| phosphorus_mg=78
| potassium_mg=363
| sodium_mg=45
| zinc_mg=0.33
| manganese_mg=0.22
| vitC_mg=27.4
| thiamin_mg=0.127
| riboflavin_mg=0.01
| niacin_mg=0.3
| pantothenic_mg=0.302
| vitB6_mg=0.218
| folate_ug=8
| choline_mg=25.4
| source_usda=1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168430/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

All parts of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as [[Traditional medicine|folk medicines]], [[Ayurveda]], [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese traditional medicine]], and [[oriental medicine]].<ref name=":13">Khare CP.&nbsp;''Indian Herbal Remedies: Rational Western Therapy, Ayurvedic, and Other Traditional Usage, Botany'',&nbsp;1st edn.&nbsp;USA: Springer,&nbsp;2004:&nbsp;326–327.</ref><ref name=":14">Sridhar KR,&nbsp;Bhat R.&nbsp;Lotus: a potential nutraceutical source.&nbsp;''J Agri Technol''&nbsp;2007;&nbsp;'''3''':&nbsp;143–155.</ref> In Chinese medicine, seeds are still used as {{transliteration|zh|lian zi xin}} ({{lang|zh|蓮子心}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.025 |title=Neferine inhibits cultured hepatic stellate cell activation and facilitates apoptosis: A possible molecular mechanism |year=2011 |last1=Ding |first1=Hui |last2=Shi |first2=Jinghong |last3=Wang |first3=Ying |last4=Guo |first4=Jia |last5=Zhao |first5=Juhui |last6=Dong |first6=Lei |journal=European Journal of Pharmacology |volume=650 |issue=1 |pages=163–169 |pmid=20969858}}</ref>

Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically [[active substance]]s.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |doi=10.1211/jpp.61.04.0001 |pmid=19298686 |title=The sacred lotus(Nelumbo nucifera)- phytochemical and therapeutic profile |journal=Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=407–22 |year=2009 |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Pulok K |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Debajyoti |last3=Maji |first3=Amal K |last4=Rai |first4=S |last5=Heinrich |first5=Michael |s2cid=85342386 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Especially in China, [[lotus seed]]s are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the [[Han dynasty|Han Dynasty]], lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Z |year=2008 |title=Nutrient value and processing of lotus seed |journal=Acad Period Agric Prod Process |volume=2008 |pages=42–43 }}</ref> Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly in [[Jianning County|Jianning]] (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") and [[Guangchang County|Guangchang]] ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zheng | first1 = B | last2 = Zheng | first2 = J | last3 = Zeng | first3 = S | year = 2003 | title = Analysis of the nutritional compositionin chinese main lotus seed varieties | journal = Acta Nutr Sin | volume = 25 | pages = 153–156 }}</ref>

These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9 | title = Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: A review | journal = Phytochemistry Reviews | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | page = 321 | year = 2015 | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Yi | last2 = Lu | first2 = Xu | last3 = Zeng | first3 = Shaoxiao | last4 = Huang | first4 = Xuhui | last5 = Guo | first5 = Zebin | last6 = Zheng | first6 = Yafeng | last7 = Tian | first7 = Yuting | last8 = Zheng | first8 = Baodong | bibcode = 2015PChRv..14..321Z | s2cid = 16527010}}</ref> It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as [[functional food]].<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /> Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of ''N. nucifera'' as both "food and [[Medicinal plants|medicine]]."<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.04.011 |title = Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn from outer space mutation |year = 2007 |last1 = Wu |first1 = J. |last2 = Zheng |first2 = Y. |last3 = Chen |first3 = T. |last4 = Yi |first4 = J. |last5 = Qin |first5 = L. |last6 = Rahman |first6 = K. |last7 = Lin |first7 = W. |journal = Food Chemistry |volume = 105 |issue = 2 |pages = 540–547}}</ref>

==== Rhizomes ====
The rhizomes are {{convert|60–14|cm|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|0.5–2.5|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter, yellowish white to yellowish brown, smooth, and with [[Plant stem|nodes]] and [[internodes]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mukherjee | first1 = PK. | display-authors = etal | year = 1998 | title = Pharmacognostical profiles of rhizomes of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn. | journal = Ancient Sci Life | volume = 17 | pages = 273–279 }}</ref>

Lotus root is a moderate-calorie root vegetable (100 g of root stem provides about 74 calories) and is composed of several [[vitamin]]s, [[mineral]]s, and [[nutrient]]s: 83.80% water, 0.11% fat, 1.56% reducing sugar, 0.41% sucrose, 2.70% crude protein, 9.25% starch, 0.80% fiber, 0.10% ash and 0.06% calcium.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal | last1 = Mukherjee | first1 = PK | display-authors = etal | year = 1996 | title = Antipyretic activity of Nelumbo nucifera rhizome extract | journal = Ind J Exp Biol | volume = 34 | issue = 3| pages = 275–276 | pmid = 8781041 }}</ref> 100 g of root provides 44&nbsp;mg of [[vitamin C]] or&nbsp;73% of [[RDA (nutrition)|daily recommended values]] (RDA).

Lotus rhizome and its extracts have shown diuretic, [[psychopharmacological]], anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, [[Hypoglycemia|hypoglycemic]], [[antipyretic]] and [[Antioxidant|antioxidant activities]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mukherjee | first1 = PK | last2 = Das | first2 = J | last3 = Saha | first3 = K | last4 = Pal | first4 = M | last5 = Saha | first5 = BP | year = 1996 | title = Diuretic activity of the rhizomes of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn (Fam. Nymphaeaceae) | journal = Phytother Res | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 424–425 | doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1573(199608)10:5<424::aid-ptr857>3.3.co;2-v}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mukherjee | first1 = PK | last2 = Saha | first2 = K | last3 = Balasubramanian | first3 = R | last4 = Pal | first4 = M | last5 = Saha | first5 = BP | year = 1996 | title = Studies on psychopharmacological effects of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Rhizome extract | journal = J Ethnopharmacol | volume = 54 | issue = 2| pages = 63–67 | doi=10.1016/s0378-8741(96)01455-9| pmid = 8953419 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mukherjee | first1 = K | last2 = Saha | first2 = K | last3 = Pal | first3 = M | last4 = Saha | first4 = B | year = 1997 | title = Effect of Nelumbo nucifera rhizome extract on blood sugar level in rats | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 58 | issue = 207–213| pages = 207–13 | doi=10.1016/s0378-8741(97)00107-4| pmid = 9421256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Huralikuppi | first1 = JC | last2 = Christopher | first2 = AB | last3 = Stephen | first3 = P | year = 1991 | title = Antidiabetic effect of Nelumbo nucifera (Gaertn): Part I Preliminary studies in rabbits | journal = Phytother Res | volume = 5 | issue = 2| pages = 54–58 | doi=10.1002/ptr.2650050203| s2cid = 57700188 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 8781041|year = 1996|last1 = Mukherjee|first1 = P. K.|last2 = Das|first2 = J.|last3 = Saha|first3 = K.|last4 = Giri|first4 = S. N.|last5 = Pal|first5 = M.|last6 = Saha|first6 = B. P.|title = Antipyretic activity of Nelumbo nucifera rhizome extract|journal = Indian Journal of Experimental Biology|volume = 34|issue = 3|pages = 275–6}}</ref>{{medcn|date=December 2017}}

==== Seeds ====
Lotus seeds are mostly oval or spherical, with sizes varying according to varieties. They are generally 1.2–1.8&nbsp;cm long, with diameters ranging from 0.8 to 1.4&nbsp;cm and a weight of 1.1–1.4 g. After lotus seeds have been decorticated and peeled, they are edible and rich in nutrients and can be dried for storage. Their nutritional values can differ due to culture environments and varieties.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wang | first1 = J | last2 = Zhang | first2 = G | year = 2010 | title = The yield and chemical composition of lotus seed on different culture conditions | journal = Hubei J TCM | volume = 32 | pages = 75–76 }}</ref>

Not only do these seeds contain [[protein]]s of high quality and are rich in a variety of [[essential amino acid]]s including high contents of [[albumin]] (42%) and [[globulin]] (27%), they also contain unsaturated fatty acids, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[vitamin]]s, [[Calcium metabolism|calcium]], [[Human iron metabolism|iron]], [[Zinc metabolism|zinc]], phosphorus and other trace elements.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shad | first1 = MA | last2 = Nawaz | first2 = H | last3 = Siddique | first3 = F | last4 = Zahra | first4 = J | last5 = Mushtaq | first5 = A | year = 2013 | title = Nutritional and functional characterization of seed kernel of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera): application of response surface methodology | journal = Food Sci Technol Res | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 163–172 | doi = 10.3136/fstr.19.163 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tang | first1 = P | last2 = Jiang | first2 = Z | last3 = Mei | first3 = C | last4 = Jiang | first4 = H | year = 1998 | title = The composition, solubility and quality of lotus seed | journal = J Beijing Norm Univ (Nat Sci) | volume = 34 | pages = 532–537 }}</ref> They also provide water-soluble polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, superoxide dismutase, and other bioactive components.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zheng | first1 = B | last2 = Zheng | first2 = J | last3 = Zeng | first3 = C | year = 2004 | title = Study on three functional components of Chinese main lotus seed varieties | journal = Acta Nutr Sin | volume = 26 | pages = 158–160 }}</ref>

Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including [[Vitamin B1|VB1]], [[Riboflavin|VB2]], [[Vitamin B6|VB6]] and [[Vitamin E]].<ref>Zheng B, Zheng J, Zeng S (2003) Analysis of the nutritional composition in Chinese main lotus seed varieties. Acta Nutr Sin 25:153–156</ref><ref>Wu J, Zheng Y, Chen T, Yi J, Qin L, Rahman K, Lin W (2007) Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. from outer space mutation. Food Chem 105:540–547</ref>

The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in ''N. nucifera'' seeds can help combat high [[Hypertension|blood pressure]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], and [[gallstone]]s.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

After lotus [[Germination|seed germination]], crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.<ref>Xia Y (2012) Effect of germination on chemical and functional properties of lotus seeds. Food Sci 33:91–98</ref><ref name=":16" />

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Lotus field.jpg|Lotus field
File:Nelumbo Nucifera fruit - botanic garden Adelaide.jpg|Fruit; the dried seed cup is commonly used in flower arrangements.
File:Nelumbo nucifera 004.JPG|Developing fruit
File:Nelumbo July 2011-3.jpg|Bud of ''Nelumbo nucifera''
File:Nelumbo nucifera LOTUS bud.jpg|Bud
File:Nelumbo-nucifera-3- 1200.jpg|Flower
</gallery>

==Cultural and religious significance==
[[File:Lotus, a typical Hindu temple motive, in red sandstone, Qutb complex.jpg|thumb|right|240px|An Indian lotus motif on a Hindu temple. ''Nelumbo nucifera'' is also the [[Floral emblem#India|national flower]] of India.]]
[[File:Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg|thumb|Lotus symbol in [[Derafsh Kaviani]], flag of the [[Sasanian Empire]]]]
{{main|Sacred lotus in religious art}}

''Nelumbo nucifera'' is a lotus species with historical cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,<ref>{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera (sacred lotus) |url=http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/nelumbo-nucifera-sacred-lotus |publisher=Kew |access-date=26 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530010810/https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/nelumbo-nucifera-sacred-lotus |archive-date=30 May 2014 }}</ref> representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. In Christianity, the lotus flower is often associated with the apostle [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]] and his coming to India.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref> The lotus flower is also mentioned in the bible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: Job 40:21–22 – New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Job%2040%3A21-22&version=NIV |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}</ref>

In Asian art, a [[lotus throne]] is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in [[Buddhist art]] and [[Hindu art]] and is often seen in [[Jain art]]. Originating in [[Indian art]], it followed [[Indian religions]] to [[East Asia]] in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.<ref>Jansen, Eva Rudy, ''The Book of Hindu Imagery: The Gods and their Symbols'', p. 18, 1993, Binkey Kok Publications, {{ISBN|9074597076}}, 9789074597074, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1iASyoae8cMC&pg=PA18 google books]</ref><ref>Krishan, Yuvrajmm, Tadikonda, Kalpana K., ''The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development'', pp. 65, 78, 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|8121505658}}, 9788121505659, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA65 google books]</ref><ref>Moore, Albert C., Klein, Charlotte, ''Iconography of Religions: An Introduction'', p. 148, 1977, Chris Robertson, {{ISBN|0800604881}}, 9780800604882, [https://books.google.com/books?id=chWcZcYcyeQC&pg=PA149 google books]</ref><ref>Rodrigues, H, [http://www.mahavidya.ca/2016/04/22/the-sacred-lotus-symbol/ "The Sacred Lotus Symbol"], ''Mahavidya'', 2016</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shakti |first=M. Gupta |title=Plant Myths and Traditions in India |year=1971 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Netherlands]] |pages=65–67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref>

The ''Nelumbo nucifera'', which is also called ([[Niloufar|Nilufar]] Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of [[Anahita]] in the [[Persepolis]]. The lotus flower was included in [[Kaveh the blacksmith]]'s [[Derafsh]] and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire [[Derafsh Kaviani]]. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians [[Solar Hijri calendar]].

The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Virani |first=Shafique |date=2005-01-01 |title=Symphony of Gnosis: A Self-Definition of the Ismaili Ginan Literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/36984287 |journal=Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought |page=507}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bingdi lotus]]
* [[List of vegetables]]
* ''[[The Lotos-Eaters]]''
* [[Lotus (plant)|Lotus]]
* [[Lotus position]]
* [[Lotus-eaters]]
* [[Palmette]]
* [[Tulsi]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

*Getty, Alice, ''The gods of northern Buddhism : their history, iconography and progressive evolution through the northern Buddhist countries'', 1914, Oxford, [https://archive.org/details/northernbuddhism00gettuoft/page/n97 fully online]

==External links==
{{Commons multi|Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus}}
{{Wikispecies}}

* {{cite web|url=http://vietnam-online.org/lotus-symbol-in-vietnamese-culture|title=Lotus Symbol in Vietnamese Culture|access-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530074316/http://vietnam-online.org/lotus-symbol-in-vietnamese-culture|archive-date=2015-05-30}}
* [https://fishgraphy.com/beginners-guide-to-red-tiger-lotus-maintenance/ Lotus Flower] for aquarium

[[Category:Nelumbo|nucifera]]
[[Category:Flora of temperate Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of tropical Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Europe]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:National symbols of India]]
[[Category:Plants in Hinduism]]
[[Category:Decorative fruits and seeds]]
[[Category:National symbols of Vietnam]]
[[Category:Rhizomatous plants]]
[[Category:Asian vegetables]]
[[Category:Thermogenic plants]]
[[Category:Symbols of Haryana]]
[[Category:Soma (drink)]]
[[Category:Plants in Buddhism]]

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