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{{Short description|Illegal poaching, sale and trafficking}}
[[File:Zoo Leipzig - Tou Feng.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[Chinese pangolin]] (''Manis pentadactyla'') at [[Zoo Leipzig]] in [[Leipzig]], Germany]]
[[File:Manis ranges.png|thumb|300px|Pangolin species distributions:
{{leftlegend|#820B8E|'''[[Indian pangolin]]''' ('''''Manis crassicaudata''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#F89B3C|'''[[Chinese pangolin]]''' ('''''Manis pentadactyla''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#59C9FD|'''[[Sunda pangolin]]''' ('''''Manis javanica''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#FF0800|'''[[Philippine pangolin]]''' ('''''Manis culionensis''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#9FDA31|'''[[Tree pangolin]]''' ('''''Phataginus tricuspis''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#FF0090|'''[[Long-tailed pangolin]]''' ('''''Phataginus tetradactyla''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#03C03C|'''[[Giant pangolin]]''' ('''''Smutsia gigantea''''')|outline=gray}}
{{leftlegend|#1560BD|'''[[Ground pangolin|Cape pangolin]]''' ('''''Smutsia temminckii''''')|outline=gray}}
]]
The '''pangolin trade''' is the illegal [[poaching]], [[wildlife smuggling|trafficking]], and sale of [[pangolin]]s, parts of pangolins, or pangolin-derived products on the [[black market]]. Pangolins are believed to be the world's most trafficked [[mammal]], accounting for as much as 20% of all [[Wildlife trade|illegal wildlife trade]].<ref name=cnnchangethelist/><ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=ap5october2016/> According to the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), more than a million pangolins were poached in the decade prior to 2014.<ref name=iucnextinction/>

The animals are trafficked mainly for their [[Scale (anatomy)|scales]], which are believed to treat a variety of health conditions in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), and as a luxury food in Vietnam and China. In Africa, pangolins are sold as a form of [[bushmeat]], for ritual or spiritual purposes, and use in [[traditional African medicine]]. Many times the animal is trafficked just for clothing and fashion.

The [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES), which regulates the international wildlife trade, has placed restrictions on the pangolin market since 1975, and in 2016, it added all eight pangolin species to its [[List of species protected by CITES Appendix I|Appendix I]], reserved for the strictest prohibitions on animals threatened with extinction;<ref name=guardian28september2016/><ref name=citeshow/> the ninth species, ''[[Manis mysteria]]'', is yet to be added. They are also listed on the [[IUCN Red List]], all with decreasing populations and designations ranging from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered.<ref name=iucn/>

==Background==
[[File:Coat of Pangolin scales.JPG|thumb|upright|A coat made with ''[[Indian pangolin|Manis crassicaudata]]'' scales on display at the [[Royal Armouries]] in Leeds. The coat was given to [[King George III]] in 1820, along with a helmet, also made with pangolin scales.]]

[[Pangolin]]s are [[mammal]]s of the order [[Pholidota]], of which there is one extant family, [[Manidae]], with three genera: ''[[Manis]]'' includes four species in Asia, and ''[[Phataginus]]'' and ''[[Smutsia]]'' each comprise two species in Africa. They are the only mammal known to have a layer of large, protective [[keratin]] [[Scale (anatomy)|scales]] covering their skin. Though sometimes known by the common name "scaly anteater," and formerly considered to be in the same order as [[anteater]]s, they are taxonomically distant, grouped with [[Carnivora]] under the clade [[Ferae]].

Pangolin behavior varies by species, with some living on the ground, in burrows, and some living in trees. A common predator, [[big cat]]s, struggle to contend with pangolins' scales when rolled up. But while well-equipped to defend against natural predators, they are easily caught by [[Poaching|poachers]], who simply pick up the animals when they roll into a ball.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=guardian28september2016/>

All eight species of pangolin are listed on the [[IUCN Red List]], with designations ranging from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered.<ref name=iucn/> According to the IUCN and other scientists and activists, the populations of all species are rapidly decreasing.<ref name=iucn/><ref name=cnnchangethelist/>

==History==
The pangolin trade is centuries old. An early known example is in 1820, when [[Francis Rawdon]], first Marquis of Hastinges and [[British East India Company|East India Company]] Governor General in Bengal, presented [[King George III]] with a coat made with the scales of ''Manis crassicaudata''.<ref name=nytimes30march2015/> The gifts are owned by The Royal Collections Trust but are on loan to and displayed in the [[Royal Armouries]] in Leeds. Additionally, the ‘Splendours of the Subcontinent’ exhibit in the Royal Collections Trust is home to a coat and a helmet made from pangolin and armadillo scales. The coat and helmet were presented to King Edward VII, when Prince of Wales, during his tour of India in 1875-76 by Bhavani Singh, Maharaja of Datia.

The [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]] (CITES), which regulates the international wildlife trade, added the eight known species of pangolin to its appendices in 1975. CITES places species it seeks to protect in three appendices organized according to urgency and, correspondingly, the strictness of the regulations. Appendix I includes the strictest prohibitions and is reserved for animals threatened with extinction.<ref name=citeshow/> In 1975, ''[[Ground pangolin|Smutsia temminckii]]'' was placed in Appendix I; ''[[Indian pangolin|Manis crassicaudata]]'', ''[[Philippine pangolin|Manis culionensis]]'', ''[[Sunda pangolin|Manis javanica]]'', and ''[[Chinese pangolin|Manis pentadactyla]]'' were placed in Appendix II; ''[[Giant pangolin|Smutsia gigantea]]'', ''[[Long-tailed pangolin|Phataginus tetradactyla]]'', and ''[[Tree pangolin|Phataginus tricuspis]]'' were placed in Appendix III.<ref name=citeschecklist/> In 1995, ''Smutsia'' and ''Phataginus'' were moved to Appendix II. Finally, in 2016, at the 17th CITES Conference of Parties in [[Johannesburg]], representatives of 182 countries unanimously enacted a ban on the international trade of all pangolin species by moving them to Appendix I.<ref name=guardian28september2016/> Though the individual species are listed in Appendix I, the family as a whole (Manidae) is under Appendix II, with the implication that if additional species are discovered, they will be automatically placed in Appendix II.<ref name=citeschecklist/>

Despite restrictions on trade in place since 1975, enforcement is not uniformly strong. Most efforts have focused on curbing the supply side of the trade, but demand remains high and there is a thriving [[black market]]. Pangolins are believed to be the world's most trafficked mammal, accounting for as much as 20% of all illegal wildlife trade.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/><ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=ap5october2016/> In 2014, the [[Worldwatch Institute]] reported that more pangolins were seized than any other animal in Asia's wildlife black market.<ref name=quartz/><ref name=worldwatch/> Estimates place the number of pangolins poached each year at between 10,000 and 100,000.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=cnnchangethelist/> The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) estimates that more than a million pangolins were poached in the decade prior to 2014.<ref name=iucnextinction/> Most are sent to China and Vietnam, where their meat is prized and scales used for medicinal purposes.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/>

African and Asian nations frequently report on noteworthy confiscations of pangolins and pangolin parts. When a Chinese boat ran into a [[coral reef]] in the Philippines in 2013, officials discovered it to be carrying 10 tonnes of frozen pangolins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/apr/15/chinese-vessel-philippine-reef-illegal-pangolin-meat|title=Chinese vessel on Philippine coral reef caught with illegal pangolin meat|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=2013-04-15|website=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2018-07-11|archive-date=2013-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416213335/http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/apr/15/chinese-vessel-philippine-reef-illegal-pangolin-meat|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic|2019-20 coronavirus pandemic]], [[nucleic acid sequence]]s of [[virus]]es taken from pangolins had initially been found to be a 99% match with [[SARS-CoV-2]], the virus which causes [[COVID-19]].<ref name="Cyranoski-2020">{{Cite journal|last=Cyranoski|first=David|date=2020-02-07|title=Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people?|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|language=en|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00364-2|pmid=33547428|s2cid=212825975|access-date=2020-03-22|archive-date=2020-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207163538/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00364-2|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=P.|last2=Chen|first2=W.|last3=Chen|first3=J.-P.|year=2019|title=Viral Metagenomics Revealed Sendai Virus and Coronavirus Infection of Malayan Pangolins (Manis javanica)|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=11|page=979|doi=10.3390/v11110979|pmid=31652964|pmc=6893680|doi-access=free}}</ref> The virus was believed to have originated in [[bat]]s, and that pangolins were an intermediate host prior to infecting humans. The illicit Chinese trade of pangolins was suggested as a [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] for human transmission.<ref name="Cyranoski-2020" /><ref name="Live">{{cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/first-case-coronavirus-found.html|title=1st known case of coronavirus traced back to November in China|last1=Bryner|first1=Jeanna|date=March 15, 2020|publisher=[[LiveScience]]|access-date=March 15, 2020|archive-date=March 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314150202/https://www.livescience.com/first-case-coronavirus-found.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, pangolins were eventually ruled out as the definitive source of (SARS-CoV-2), after it emerged that the 99% match did not actually refer to the entire [[genome]], but to a specific site known as the receptor-binding domain (RBD).<ref name="Nature-coronavirus-mystery">{{cite journal|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00548-w|title=Mystery deepens over animal source of coronavirus|date=26 February 2020|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00548-w|access-date=28 February 2020|last1=Cyranoski|first1=David|volume=579|issue=7797|pages=18–19|pmid=32127703|bibcode=2020Natur.579...18C|s2cid=211836524|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401110822/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00548-w|url-status=live|doi-access=}}</ref> A whole-genome comparison found that the pangolin and human viruses share only up to 92% of their [[nucleic acid]] sequence, while at least 99.8% is needed for a conclusive match.<ref name="Nature-coronavirus-mystery" /> Ecologists worried that the early speculation about pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering the animals further.<ref name="Nature-coronavirus-mystery" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/civet-cat-slaughter-to-fight-sars|title=Civet Cat Slaughter To Fight SARS|date=11 January 2004|publisher=[[CBS News]]|access-date=28 February 2020|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228180339/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/civet-cat-slaughter-to-fight-sars/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Through the pangolin trade, a new species of pangolin from [[Southeast Asia]], ''[[Manis mysteria]]'', was identified in 2023 from three shipments of scales confiscated between 2012 and 2019.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Gu |first=Tong-Tong |last2=Wu |first2=Hong |last3=Yang |first3=Feng |last4=Gaubert |first4=Philippe |last5=Heighton |first5=Sean P. |last6=Fu |first6=Yeyizhou |last7=Liu |first7=Ke |last8=Luo |first8=Shu-Jin |last9=Zhang |first9=Hua-Rong |last10=Hu |first10=Jing-Yang |last11=Yu |first11=Li |date=2023-10-03 |title=Genomic analysis reveals a cryptic pangolin species |url=https://pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2304096120 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=40 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2304096120 |issn=0027-8424}}</ref>

==Asia==
The black market pangolin trade is primarily active in Asia, particularly in China where the population can be considered as vermin.  Demand is particularly high for their scales, but whole animals are also sold either living or dead for the production of other products with purported medicinal properties or for consumption as exotic food.

===Scales===
[[File:Myanmar Illicit Endangered Wildlife Market 04 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Illicit wildlife trade in Myanmar|alt=]]

Pangolins have a thick layer of protective scales made from keratin, the same material that makes up human [[fingernail]]s and [[rhinoceros]] horns.<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> Scales account for about 20 percent of the animal's weight. When threatened, pangolins curl into a ball, using the scales as armor to defend against predators.

The scales can cost more than $3,000/kg on the black market.<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> In [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), the scales are used for a variety of purposes. The pangolins are boiled to remove the scales,<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /> which are dried and roasted, then sold based on claims that they can stimulate [[lactation]],<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> help to drain [[pus]],<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> and relieve [[skin disease]]s<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> or [[palsy]].<ref name="telegraph1january2015" /> {{as of|2015}}, pangolin scales were covered under some [[health insurance]] plans in Vietnam.<ref name="nytimes30march2015a" />

===Meat===
Pangolin meat is prized as a delicacy in parts of China and Vietnam.<ref name="ap5october2016" /> In China, the meat is believed to have nutritional value to aid [[kidney]] function.<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> In Vietnam, restaurants charge as much as $150 per pound of pangolin meat.<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> At one restaurant in [[Ho Chi Minh City]], pangolin is the most expensive item on its menu of exotic wildlife, requiring a deposit and a few hours' notice. Restaurant employees often kill the animal at the table, in front of diners, to show authenticity and freshness.<ref name="nytimes30march2015a" />[[File:Pangolin du Cameroun 03.jpg|thumb|Pangolin prepared for cooking]]

According to Dan Challender of the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]'s pangolin specialist group, "The fact that it's illegal isn't played down and is even attractive, because it adds this element that you live beyond the law."<ref name="nytimes30march2015a" />

===Ongoing use in traditional medicine===
The official [[pharmacopoeia]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] continues to include Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in TCM formulations, and there is a legal market for scales.<ref name=PanMed>{{cite book |last1=Xing |first1=Shuang |last2=Bonebrake |first2=Timothy C. |last3=Cheng |first3=Wenda |last4=Zhang |first4=Mingxia |last5=Ades |first5=Gary |last6=Shaw |first6=Debbie |last7=Zhou |first7=Youlong |display-authors=3 |date=2019 |chapter=Meat and medicine: historic and contemporary use in Asia |editor1-last=Challender |editor1-first=Daniel |editor1-link=Daniel Challender |editor2-last=Nash |editor2-first=Helen |editor3-last=Waterman |editor3-first=Carly |title=Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zey_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA233 |edition=First |publisher=Academic Press |page=233 |isbn=9780128155073 |access-date=27 March 2020 }}</ref> Today the main uses of pangolin scales are to unblock blood clots, promote blood circulation, and to help lactating women secrete milk. There are many other applications for treating gynecological diseases, and pills that contain powdered pangolin scales are used for treating blockages of the fallopian tubes to cure infertility.<ref name=PanMed/> TCM researchers and inventors continue to expand the number of applications of pangolin scales: patents continue to be filed for medicinal formulations, and medical journals continue to publish articles extolling health and healing benefits, including the treatment of diseases that are not recognized by Western medicine. Recently added benefits include curing anorexia in children (2002)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=S. |date=2002 |title=Pangolin scales cure children anorexia |language=zh |journal=Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine |volume=43 |issue=s |page=95 }}</ref> and adhesive intestinal obstruction (2004).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=L. |date=2004 |title=Pangolin scales cure adhesive intestinal obstruction |language=zh |journal=Shandong Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine |issue=23 |pages=758–759 }}</ref>

===Other products===
Though meat and scales are the primary drivers of the intercontinental pangolin trade, there are also other less common parts and uses. Pangolin [[wine]] is produced by boiling [[rice wine]] with a baby pangolin.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /> It is purported to have various healing properties, such as for treatment of [[skin disease]] and improved breathing.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /><ref name="cnn28september2016" /> Pangolin [[blood]] is similarly viewed by some as having medicinal value.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" /> Pangolin skins have also been trafficked. In 2015, Uganda reported it had seized two tons of pangolin skins.<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> There is also evidence of live pangolins traded internationally as zoo animals.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|title=Recent Information on the Status and Utilization of African Pangolins|last=Brautigam|first=Amie|date=1994|website=Pangolins.org|access-date=March 17, 2019|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134145/https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Africa ==
Humans hunt, trade, and traffic pangolins in Africa for spiritual purposes, traditional medicine, and consumption as bushmeat.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/pangolin|title=The world's most trafficked mammal is being slaughtered for its scales|date=2013-02-25|website=African Wildlife Foundation|access-date=2019-03-14|archive-date=2020-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825093140/https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/pangolin|url-status=live}}</ref> In some areas, poaching of pangolins is protected by either laws or cultural or spiritual taboos.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Reniko|first1=Gondo|last2=Mogomotsi|first2=Patricia K.|last3=Mogomotsi|first3=Goemeone E.J.|date=2018-01-02|title=Integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Natural Resources Management in Hurungwe District, Zimbabwe|journal=International Journal of African Renaissance Studies – Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity|volume=13|issue=1|pages=96–112|doi=10.1080/18186874.2018.1475869|s2cid=149665460|issn=1818-6874}}</ref> For example, chiefs within the Hurungwe District of Zimbabwe prohibit the killing or trade of Pangolins.<ref name=":1" />

=== Bushmeat ===
Pangolins are [[Poaching|poached]] by subsistence hunters for direct consumption, sold in local markets, as well as purchased directly from home-working vendors or hunters.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|title=Recent Information on the Status and Utilization of African Pangolins|last=Brautigam|first=Amie|date=1994|website=Pangolins.org|access-date=March 17, 2019|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134145/https://www.pangolinsg.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/06/Brauigam-et-al._1994_Recent-information-on-the-status-and-use-of-African-pangolins.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A 1988 report found that in Nigeria, the [[long-tailed pangolin|long-tailed]] (''Phataginus tetradactyla'') and [[tree pangolin|white-bellied]] (''Phataginus tricuspis'') species were the second-most expensive bushmeat.<ref name=":15" /> However, in some areas, such as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], pangolins are one of the least frequently captured animals for bushmeat (totaling 1.7% of the species recorded in 1987).<ref name=":15" /> This was in-part due to their elusive nature as well as social taboos.<ref name=":15" /> In [[Ghana]], pangolins are hunted using traps, guns, or dogs, and often traded directly from hunters to roadside restaurants or wholesalers, bypassing markets.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Milner-Gulland|first1=E. J.|last2=Oppong|first2=James|last3=Rowcliffe|first3=J. Marcus|last4=McNamara|first4=James|last5=Alexander|first5=Justine Shanti|date=October 2015|title=The role of bushmeat in a West African agricultural landscape|journal=Oryx|volume=49|issue=4|pages=643–651|doi=10.1017/S0030605313001294|issn=0030-6053|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":63">{{Cite journal|last1=Boakye|first1=Maxwell Kwame|last2=Kotzé|first2=Antoinette|last3=Dalton|first3=Desiré Lee|last4=Jansen|first4=Raymond|date=2016-04-01|title=Unravelling the Pangolin Bushmeat Commodity Chain and the Extent of Trade in Ghana|journal=Human Ecology|volume=44|issue=2|pages=257–264|doi=10.1007/s10745-016-9813-1|s2cid=155613767|issn=1572-9915}}</ref> There is an indication of elevated hunting during lean farming periods. This, in-part, seems to be due to low labor demands for cocoa farms (a primary agricultural resource in Ghana) in September and October and consequentially higher labor demands in November and December.<ref name=":63" />

=== Traditional medicine===
[[File:Pangolin scale burn in Cameroon. Credit- Kenneth Cameron - USFWS (2) (32575640450).jpg|thumb|Confiscated pangolin scales set to be destroyed in Cameroon in 2017]]Pangolins play a number of roles in traditional African medicine, and a larger number of the animals' parts have a purpose.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=Boakye |first1=Maxwell Kwame |last2=Pietersen |first2=Darren William |last3=Kotzé |first3=Antoinette |last4=Dalton |first4=Desiré-Lee |last5=Jansen |first5=Raymond |last6=Ai |first6=Jing |title=Knowledge and Uses of African Pangolins as a Source of Traditional Medicine in Ghana |journal=[[PLOS One]] |date=20 January 2015 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=e0117199 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0117199 |pmc=4300090 |pmid=25602281 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1017199B |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite journal|last=Boakye|first=Maxwell Kwame|date=2018-10-20|title=Influence of ethnicity on cultural use of pangolins in Ghana and its implications on their conservation|url=http://www.ethnobioconservation.com/index.php/ebc/article/view/249|journal=Ethnobiology and Conservation|volume=7|issn=2238-4782|access-date=2019-03-17|archive-date=2019-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402041957/http://www.ethnobioconservation.com/index.php/ebc/article/view/249|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{cite journal |last1=Soewu |first1=Durojaye A |last2=Ayodele |first2=Ibukun A |title=Utilisation of Pangolin (Manis sps) in traditional Yorubic medicine in Ijebu province, Ogun State, Nigeria |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |date=4 December 2009 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=39 |doi=10.1186/1746-4269-5-39 |pmc=2797502 |pmid=19961597 |doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, a study of pangolin use in Kumasi, Ghana, found examples for 13 body parts.<ref name=":18" />

The scales are used by [[Yorùbá medicine|Yorubic medical practitioners]] in Nigeria to treat, cure, or regulate stomach disorders, [[gonorrhea]], menstrual periods, genital itching or swelling, wounds and cuts, mental illness, stroke, and serve as an antidote for various poisons.<ref name=":25" /> The [[Awori tribe|Awori Tribe]] uses them to treat back pain, mental illness, rheumatism, stomach ulcers, venereal diseases, wounds and cuts, low sexual libido, and as antibiotics.<ref name=":44">{{cite journal|last1=Soewu|first1=Durojaye A|last2=Adekanola|first2=Temilolu A|date=2011|title=Traditional-medical knowledge and perception of pangolins (manis sps) among the awori people, Southwestern Nigeria|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=7|issue=1|pages=25|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-7-25|pmc=3179697|pmid=21884607 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In Ghana, a study in [[Kumasi]] found scales used to treat a number of different medical ailments like rheumatism, infertility, convulsions, epilepsy, menstrual pains, stomach disorders, headaches, waist and back pain, stroke, mental illness, skin scars, waterborne illnesses, and leprosy.<ref name=":18" /> Research in Lentsweletau, Botswana found scales used for cracked heels, persistent cough, and nose bleeds in humans, and, when burned, the smoke was used to improve the health of cattle.<ref>{{Citation|title=Animals and African Ethics|year=2015|chapter=Animals and the Law in East, West and Southern Africa|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|doi=10.1057/9781137504050.0012|isbn=9781137504050}}</ref> In the Bombali district of Sierra Leone, scales were used for skin disease, impotence, infertility, broken ribs, stomach diseases, inflammation of the naval, athletes foot, nail disorders, healingpremature babies, arthritis, rheumatism, epilepsy, body pain, ear infections, rashes, and scars.<ref name=":34">{{cite journal|last1=Boakye|first1=Maxwell K|last2=Pietersen|first2=Darren W|last3=Kotzé|first3=Antoinette|last4=Dalton|first4=Desiré L|last5=Jansen|first5=Raymond|date=2014|title=Ethnomedicinal use of African pangolins by traditional medical practitioners in Sierra Leone|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=10|issue=1|pages=76|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-10-76|pmc=4247607|pmid=25412571 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In Yorubic medicine, pangolin bones are used to treat stroke, back pain, and [[rheumatism]], while the Awori also use them to treat mental illness.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" /> In Ghana, they have been used for rheumatism, convulsions, headaches, stroke, waist pain, asthma, mental illness, fever, bed-wetting, broken legs, rashes, and breast cancer.<ref name=":18" />

The head of a pangolin is used by the Awori to treat convulsions and remove dizziness.<ref name=":44" /> In Ghana, it was found to be used for infertility, stroke, headaches, heart disease, fever, gonorrhea, and body aches.<ref name=":18" /> In Sierra Leone, evidence was found of use for infertility, headaches, skin diseases, toothaches, heart disease, paralysis, hernias, claw hand, and as an antidote for poison.<ref name=":34" />

Pangolin oil, collected while smoking an animal over a fire, was used in Sierra Leone for rashes, stretch marks, cracked heels, skin diseases, knee pain, heart disease, and elephantiasis.<ref name=":34" />

In some areas, eating pangolin meat is believed to have medicinal value. For example, in Sierra Leone, it is used to heal premature babies, stomach disorders, rheumatism, epilepsy, high blood pressure, body pain, common childhood diseases, convulsions, and anemia.<ref name=":34" />

=== Non-medicinal beliefs ===
In Africa, pangolins are used for a variety of non-medicinal purposes, such as improving finances, improving luck, or protecting against spiritual forces.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/content/eating-pangolins-extinction|title=Eating pangolins to extinction|date=2014-07-29|website=IUCN|access-date=2019-03-16|archive-date=2016-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125175332/https://www.iucn.org/content/eating-pangolins-extinction|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":18" /><ref name=":73" /><ref name=":25" /><ref name=":34" />

Some groups in Nigeria believe the flesh of the pangolin can give the consumer the power of divination, or otherwise bring good luck, safety, or calmness.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" /> People looking for business success might use the head and the tip of the tail.<ref name=":44" /> The limbs are believed to bring good fortune and money.<ref name=":44" /> The scales of a pangolin may be used to give good luck, increase the productivity of a farm, ward off witches and evil forces, have a safe delivery of a child, provide protection, to arrest thieves, and to create amulets.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" /> The whole body of a pangolin is used in building rituals, for good fortune, prosperity, warding off sickness, curing infertility in women, granting invisibility, achieving good sales in business, prevent spells or curses, hypnosis, or seduction.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":44" />

In Ghana, the community in the Kusami area use pangolin scales, bones, head, and meat for non-medical purposes.<ref name=":18" /> Pangolins scales are used for spiritual protection, financial rituals, and protection from witchcraft.<ref name=":18" /> The bones are used for spiritual protection and protection from witchcraft.<ref name=":18" /> The head of a pangolin is used for spiritual protection and financial rituals.<ref name=":18" /> The meat of a pangolin is used to create charms for tribal chiefs and pangolin tail is used as a romantic aid.<ref name=":18" />

In the Bombali district of Sierra Leone, scales, meat, blood, intestines, claws, and whole pangolin are part of the pangolin body are used.<ref name=":34" /> The scales of the pangolin are used to make one invulnerable to bullets or cuts, to provide protection from witchcraft, and other forms of spiritual protection.<ref name=":34" /> The meat of a pangolin is used to increase intelligence of an individual, and the tail of a pangolin is used to prevent against a snake bite and to provide spiritual protection.<ref name=":34" /> The blood and claws of a pangolin is used for protection against witchcraft while the intestines of the pangolin are used for good luck.<ref name=":34" />

==Conservation and enforcement==
[[File:Pangolin scale burn in Cameroon. Credit- Kenneth Cameron - USFWS (1) (32575641040).jpg|thumb|8 tonnes of confiscated pangolin scales burning in Cameroon in 2017|alt=]]

Governments and non-governmental organizations have undertaken a variety of conservation efforts, with varying activities and degrees of success in different parts of the world. The IUCN's [[IUCN Species Survival Commission|Species Survival Commission]] formed a Pangolin Specialist Group in 2012, comprising 100 experts from 25 countries, hosted by the [[Zoological Society of London]].<ref name="iucnextinction" /> It also coordinated an annual [[awareness day]], World Pangolin Day, on February 15, starting in 2014.<ref name="cnnchangethelist" />

Public awareness and support for conservation efforts can be important to their success. According to Annette Olsson, technical advisor at [[Conservation International]], one of the problems the pangolin faces is that, unlike more well-known endangered animals like [[elephant]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, [[panda]]s, or [[tiger]]s, "It's not huge and not very charismatic. It's small and weird and just disappearing."<ref name="nytimes30march2015" /> Legal measures focus on curbing poaching and the supply side of the market, while media attention and public awareness can be crucial to the success to animal conservation efforts by affecting demand. According to CNN's John D. Sutter, "the pangolin needs international celebrity to survive, and the CITES vote is a critical step toward achieving that celebrity."<ref name="cnn28september2016" /> In some part due to lack of attention, pangolin conservation has not been a significant recipient of funding from governments or [[non-governmental organization|NGOs]].<ref name="cnnchangethelist" />

Declining numbers of pangolin population also has detrimental effects on the ecosystem. The pangolins diet consists mainly of ants and termites in which they help with stabilizing forest pest destruction and controls forest termite disasters<ref name=":0" />. When foraging for their food by digging through the ground, pangolins actually help aerate the soil and assists in the process of decomposing organic matter. Additionally, though some pangolins species sleep in trees, others sleep in burrows they dig underground. But, pangolins frequently abandon their burrows which allows other animals to use it for themselves, helping out the rest of the animal kingdom.[[File:Weston Library Opening by John Cairns 20.3.15-139 David Attenborough.jpg|thumb|upright|[[David Attenborough]] has advocated for the protection of pangolins.]]On 17 February 2017, a day before World Pangolin Day, officials in [[Cameroon]] burned 3 tonnes of confiscated pangolin scales, representing up to 10,000 animals. The Cameroonian government had confiscated more than 8 tonnes of pangolin scales since 2013.<ref name=awf/> This conservation strategy is similar to the increasingly common [[destruction of ivory|destroying confiscated ivory]] to deter poaching and generate public outrage or action. As with ivory, there is an opportunity cost to destroying the material, trading awareness via public spectacle for the money which could be gained by reselling what was confiscated.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/>

In Vietnam, one of the countries in which the pangolin trade is most active, activists have access to only two centers able to take care of pangolins, and together they can only keep 50 animals in total.<ref name=nytimes30march2015a/> ''CNN'' characterized Vietnamese activists as having "vastly inadequate support."<ref name=cnnchangethelist/>

A significant challenge to conservationists is the difficulty pangolins have in captivity. The animals do not adapt well to alternative or artificial foods and suffer stress, depression and malnutrition, leading to significantly shortened lifespans.<ref name=telegraph1january2015/><ref name=nytimes30march2015/> For these reasons they are rarely found in zoos or visible to the public while alive.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/> For example, {{as of|2015|lc=y}}, the only zoo in the United States to have a pangolin is the [[San Diego Zoo]], and only one because the other died due to digestive problems.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/> Part of the problem, which is also a major cause of the problem, is that without the ability to observe healthy pangolins in captivity, there is still a lot about pangolins humans have not yet been able to learn&nbsp;– variety in their diet, maximum lifespan, maximum size, mating habits, and many aspects of their behavior.<ref name=cnnchangethelist/>

In an episode of the [[BBC]] program ''[[Natural World (TV series)|Natural World]]'', [[David Attenborough]] highlighted the Sunda pangolin as one of the ten species he would like to save from extinction, recalling rescuing "one of the most endearing animals I have ever met" from being eaten while working on a film early in his career.<ref name=telegraph28october2012/>

In January 2022, an endangered pangolin was captured and "held hostage" by rebels in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DRC]]. They demanded ransom money from conservationists in exchange for the animal's release.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-26|title=Pangolin held to ransom in Congo amid fears of 'new trend' in wildlife crime|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/pangolin-kidnap-ransom-congo-b2001124.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/pangolin-kidnap-ransom-congo-b2001124.html |archive-date=2022-05-24 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-28|website=[[The Independent]]|language=en}}</ref>

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<ref name=quartz>{{cite web|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|url=https://qz.com/170554/demand-for-traditional-chinese-medicine-is-killing-off-the-worlds-quirkiest-animal/|title=Demand for traditional Chinese medicine is killing off the world's quirkiest animal|last=Guilford|first=Gwynn|date=27 January 2014|access-date=7 May 2017|archive-date=7 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607205534/https://qz.com/170554/demand-for-traditional-chinese-medicine-is-killing-off-the-worlds-quirkiest-animal/|url-status=live}}</ref>
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}}

==External links==
*[https://www.pangolinsg.org/ IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group]

[[Category:Wildlife smuggling]]
[[Category:Pangolins]]
[[Category:Poaching]]
[[Category:Black markets]]

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Latin: A a Á á À à Â â Ä ä Ǎ ǎ Ă ă Ā ā Ã ã Å å Ą ą Æ æ Ǣ ǣ B b C c Ć ć Ċ ċ Ĉ ĉ Č č Ç ç D d Ď ď Đ đ Ḍ ḍ Ð ð E e É é È è Ė ė Ê ê Ë ë Ě ě Ĕ ĕ Ē ē Ẽ ẽ Ę ę Ẹ ẹ Ɛ ɛ Ǝ ǝ Ə ə F f G g Ġ ġ Ĝ ĝ Ğ ğ Ģ ģ H h Ĥ ĥ Ħ ħ Ḥ ḥ I i İ ı Í í Ì ì Î î Ï ï Ǐ ǐ Ĭ ĭ Ī ī Ĩ ĩ Į į Ị ị J j Ĵ ĵ K k Ķ ķ L l Ĺ ĺ Ŀ ŀ Ľ ľ Ļ ļ Ł ł Ḷ ḷ Ḹ ḹ M m Ṃ ṃ N n Ń ń Ň ň Ñ ñ Ņ ņ Ṇ ṇ Ŋ ŋ O o Ó ó Ò ò Ô ô Ö ö Ǒ ǒ Ŏ ŏ Ō ō Õ õ Ǫ ǫ Ọ ọ Ő ő Ø ø Œ œ Ɔ ɔ P p Q q R r Ŕ ŕ Ř ř Ŗ ŗ Ṛ ṛ Ṝ ṝ S s Ś ś Ŝ ŝ Š š Ş ş Ș ș Ṣ ṣ ß T t Ť ť Ţ ţ Ț ț Ṭ ṭ Þ þ U u Ú ú Ù ù Û û Ü ü Ǔ ǔ Ŭ ŭ Ū ū Ũ ũ Ů ů Ų ų Ụ ụ Ű ű Ǘ ǘ Ǜ ǜ Ǚ ǚ Ǖ ǖ V v W w Ŵ ŵ X x Y y Ý ý Ŷ ŷ Ÿ ÿ Ỹ ỹ Ȳ ȳ Z z Ź ź Ż ż Ž ž ß Ð ð Þ þ Ŋ ŋ Ə ə
Greek: Ά ά Έ έ Ή ή Ί ί Ό ό Ύ ύ Ώ ώ Α α Β β Γ γ Δ δ Ε ε Ζ ζ Η η Θ θ Ι ι Κ κ Λ λ Μ μ Ν ν Ξ ξ Ο ο Π π Ρ ρ Σ σ ς Τ τ Υ υ Φ φ Χ χ Ψ ψ Ω ω {{Polytonic|}}
Cyrillic: А а Б б В в Г г Ґ ґ Ѓ ѓ Д д Ђ ђ Е е Ё ё Є є Ж ж З з Ѕ ѕ И и І і Ї ї Й й Ј ј К к Ќ ќ Л л Љ љ М м Н н Њ њ О о П п Р р С с Т т Ћ ћ У у Ў ў Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Џ џ Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я ́
IPA: t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ ɟ ɡ ɢ ʡ ʔ ɸ β θ ð ʃ ʒ ɕ ʑ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ ʜ ʢ ɦ ɱ ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴ ʋ ɹ ɻ ɰ ʙ ⱱ ʀ ɾ ɽ ɫ ɬ ɮ ɺ ɭ ʎ ʟ ɥ ʍ ɧ ʼ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ ʘ ǀ ǃ ǂ ǁ ɨ ʉ ɯ ɪ ʏ ʊ ø ɘ ɵ ɤ ə ɚ ɛ œ ɜ ɝ ɞ ʌ ɔ æ ɐ ɶ ɑ ɒ ʰ ʱ ʷ ʲ ˠ ˤ ⁿ ˡ ˈ ˌ ː ˑ ̪ {{IPA|}}

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