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{{short description|Arm of the Indian Ocean in West Asia}}
{{About|the body of water|other uses|Persian Gulf (disambiguation)|and|Arabian Gulf (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Gulf Region|the region in Australia|Gulf Country}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
<!--
     CONTROVERSIAL TOPIC: Please read the talk page discussion before making substantial changes.
-->
{{Infobox body of water
| name               = Persian Gulf
| image              = PersianGulf vue satellite du golfe persique.jpg
| caption            = Persian Gulf from space
| image_bathymetry   = 
| caption_bathymetry = 
| location           = [[West Asia]]
| coords             = {{Coord|26|N|52|E|type:waterbody_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
| type               = Gulf
| inflow             = [[Gulf of Oman]]
| outflow            = 
| catchment          = 
| basin_countries    = [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Qatar]], [[Bahrain]], [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Oman]] ([[Musandam Governorate|exclave of Musandam]])
| length             = {{convert|989|km|abbr=on}}
| area               = {{convert|251000|km2|abbr=on}}
| depth              = {{convert|50|m|abbr=on}}
| max-depth          = {{convert|90|m|abbr=on}}
| volume             = {{cvt|8780|km3|cumi|-2}}
}}
[[File:ISS-63 Persian Gulf at night.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Persian Gulf at Night from [[ISS]], 2020.]]

The '''Persian Gulf''' ({{lang-fa|خلیج فارس|translit=xalij-e fârs|lit=Gulf of [[Persis|Fars]]}}, {{IPA-fa|xæliːdʒe fɒːɾs|pron}}), sometimes called the {{strong|Arabian Gulf}} ({{lang-ar|اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ|Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī}}), is a [[Mediterranean seas|mediterranean sea]] in [[West Asia]]. The body of water is an extension of the [[Indian Ocean]] located between [[Iran]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="unstats.un.org">United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf Working Paper No. 61] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003154349/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf |date=2012-10-03 }}, 23rd Session, Vienna, 28 March – 4 April 2006. accessed October 9, 2010</ref> It is connected to the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the east by the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The [[Shatt al-Arab]] [[river delta]] forms the northwest shoreline.

The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive [[reef]]s (mostly rocky, but also [[Coral reef|coral]]), and abundant [[pearl oyster]]s, however its [[ecology]] has been damaged by industrialization and [[oil spill]]s.

The Persian Gulf is in the [[Persian Gulf Basin]], which is of [[Cenozoic]] origin and related to the [[subduction]] of the [[Arabian Plate]] under the [[Zagros Mountains]].<ref>A Brief Tectonic History of the Arabian basin. Retrieved from the website: http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?pageid=133 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917004218/http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?pageid=133 |date=2018-09-17 }}</ref> The current flooding of the basin started 15,000 years ago due to [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] of the [[Holocene glacial retreat]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21696486-newly-found-species-algae-might-help-corals-survive-warm-water-hot|title=A hot survivor|newspaper=The Economist|issn=0013-0613|access-date=2016-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413090551/http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21696486-newly-found-species-algae-might-help-corals-survive-warm-water-hot|archive-date=2016-04-13|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{See also|Eastern Arabia|Arab states of the Persian Gulf}}
The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] defines the Persian Gulf's southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".<ref name="IHO">{{cite web|year=1953|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf|archive-date=8 October 2011|access-date=28 December 2020|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization}}</ref>

This inland sea of some {{convert|251000|km²|0|abbr=out}} is connected to the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the east by the [[Strait of Hormuz]]; and its western end is marked by the major [[river delta]] of the [[Shatt al-Arab]], which carries the waters of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]]. In [[Iran]], this is called "Arvand Rud" (lit. ''Swift River''). Its length is {{convert|989|km|0|abbr=off}}, with Iran covering most of the northern coast and [[Saudi Arabia]] most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about {{convert|56|km|0|abbr=on}} wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. Overall, the waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of {{convert|90|m|0|abbr=off}} and an average depth of {{convert|50|m|0|abbr=off}}.

Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from north): Iran; [[Oman]]'s [[Musandam Governorate|Musandam exclave]]; the [[United Arab Emirates]]; Saudi Arabia; [[Qatar]], on a [[peninsula]] off the Saudi coast; [[Bahrain]], an island nation; [[Kuwait]]; and [[Iraq]] in the northwest. [[List of islands in the Persian Gulf|Various small islands]] also lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of [[Territorial disputes in the Persian Gulf|territorial disputes]] between the states in the region.

===Exclusive economic zone===
[[Exclusive economic zones]] in the Persian Gulf:<ref>{{Cite web|title=EEZ|url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez|access-date=2021-02-25|website=www.seaaroundus.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Catches by Taxon in the waters of Oman (Musandam)|url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/911?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10|access-date=2021-02-25|website=www.seaaroundus.org}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:100%"
|-
!width=75|Number
!width=250|Country
!width=100|Area (km<sup>2</sup>)
|-
| align=center|1 || '''{{IRI}}''' || align=center|97,860
|-
| align=center|2 || '''{{UAE}}''' || align=center|52,455 
|-
| align=center|3 || '''{{KSA}}''' || align=center|33,792
|-
| align=center|4 || '''{{QAT}}''' || align=center|31,819
|-
| align=center|5 || '''{{KUW}}''' || align=center|11,786
|-
| align=center|6 || '''{{BHR}}''' || align=center|8,826
|-
| align=center|7 || '''{{OMA}}''' || align=center|3,678
|-
| align=center|8 || '''{{IRQ}}''' || align=center|540
|- style="background:#9acdff;"
!Total
|'''Persian Gulf''' || align=center|'''240,756''' 
|}

===Coastlines===
Countries by [[coastline length]]{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}:

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:100%"
|-
!width=75|Number
!width=250|Country
!width=100|Length
|-
| align=center|1 || '''{{IRI}}''' || align=center|1,536
|-
| align=center|2 || '''{{KSA}}''' || align=center|1,300
|-
| align=center|3 || '''{{UAE}}''' || align=center|900
|-
| align=center|4 || '''{{QAT}}''' || align=center|563
|-
| align=center|5 || '''{{KUW}}''' || align=center|499
|-
| align=center|6 || '''{{BHR}}''' || align=center|161
|-
| align=center|7 || '''{{OMA}}''' || align=center|100
|-
| align=center|8 || '''{{IRQ}}''' || align=center|58
|- style="background:#9acdff;"
!Total
|'''Persian Gulf''' || align=center|'''5,117''' 
|}

=== Islands ===
{{See also|List of islands in the Persian Gulf}}

The Persian Gulf is home to many islands such as Bahrain, an Arab state. Geographically, the biggest island in the Persian Gulf is [[Qeshm island]], belonging to Iran and located in the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. Other significant islands in the Persian Gulf include [[Greater Tunb]], [[Lesser Tunb]] and [[Kish Island|Kish]] administered by Iran, [[Bubiyan Island|Bubiyan]] administered by Kuwait, [[Tarout]] administered by Saudi Arabia, and [[Dalma (island)|Dalma]] administered by UAE. In recent years, there has also been the addition of [[artificial island]]s for [[tourist attraction]]s, such as [[The World Islands]] in [[Dubai]] and [[The Pearl Island]] in [[Doha]]. Persian Gulf islands are often also historically significant, having been used in the past by colonial powers such as the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and the [[British Empire|British]] in their trade or as acquisitions for their empires.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ramerini|first=Marco|title=Portuguese in the Arabia and the Persian Gulf|url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/eng/asia/persian_gulf/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911015234/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/portuguese-persian-gulf-arabian-peninsula/|archive-date=2015-09-11|access-date=2010-11-27}}</ref>

== Oceanography ==
The Persian Gulf is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz. Writing the water balance budget for the Persian Gulf, the inputs are river discharges from Iran and Iraq (estimated to be {{convert|2000|m3}} per second), as well as precipitation over the sea which is around {{convert|180|mm|in|abbr=on}}/year in [[Qeshm Island]]. The evaporation of the sea is high, so that after considering river discharge and rain contributions, there is still a deficit of {{convert|416|km3}} per year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pous|first1=Stéphane|last2=Lazure|first2=Pascal|last3=Carton|first3=Xavier|title=A model of the general circulation in the Persian Gulf and in the Strait of Hormuz: Intraseasonal to interannual variability|journal=Continental Shelf Research|volume=94|pages=55–70|doi=10.1016/j.csr.2014.12.008|year=2015|url=https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00244/35563/|bibcode=2015CSR....94...55P}}</ref> This difference is supplied by currents at the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The water from the Persian Gulf has a higher salinity, and therefore exits from the bottom of the Strait, while ocean water with less salinity flows in through the top. Another study revealed the following numbers for water exchanges for the Persian Gulf: evaporation = –{{convert|1.84|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, precipitation = {{convert|0.08|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, inflow from the Strait = {{convert|33.66|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, outflow from the Strait = -{{convert|32.11|m|ft|abbr=on}}/year, and the balance is 0&nbsp;m (0&nbsp;ft)/year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xue|first1=Pengfei|last2=Eltahir|first2=Elfatih A. B.|date=2015-01-29|title=Estimation of the Heat and Water Budgets of the Persian (Arabian) Gulf Using a Regional Climate Model|journal=Journal of Climate|volume=28|issue=13|pages=5041–5062|doi=10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00189.1|issn=0894-8755|citeseerx=10.1.1.714.254|bibcode=2015JCli...28.5041X|s2cid=14873658 }}</ref> Data from different 3D computational fluid mechanics models, typically with spatial resolution of {{convert|3|km}} and depth each element equal to {{convert|1|–|10|m|ft}} are predominantly used in computer models.

==Name==
===Historical names===
[[File:Persian Gulf map.png|upright=1.35|thumb|Map of the Persian Gulf. The [[Gulf of Oman]] leads to the [[Arabian Sea]]. Detail from [[:File:MiddleEast.png|larger map of the Middle East]].]]
Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names. The [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] called it the "Bitter Sea".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bagg |first1=Ariel M. |title=The unconquerable country: the Babylonian marshes in the Neo-Assyrian sources |journal=Water History |date=1 March 2020 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=57–73 |doi=10.1007/s12685-020-00245-5|s2cid=216032694 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020WatHi..12...57B }}</ref> In 550 BC, the [[Achaemenid Empire]] established the first ancient empire in [[Persis]] (''Pars'', or modern ''[[Fars province|Fars]]''), in the southwestern region of the [[Iranian plateau]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Touraj Daryaee |title=The Persian Gulf Trade in Late Antiquity |journal=Journal of World History |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=2003 |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.1/daryaee.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805010657/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.1/daryaee.html |archive-date=August 5, 2013}}</ref> Consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the "Persian Gulf".<ref>{{cite web| url = https://japan.mfa.gov.ir/en/newsview/536034| title = Documents on the Persian Gulf's name the eternal heritage ancient time by Dr.Mohammad Ajam<!-- -->}}</ref> In the book of [[Nearchus]] known as ''Indikê'' (300 BC), the word "Persikon kolpos" is mentioned for multiple times meaning "Persian gulf".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nearchus |title=The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates |journal=The Voyage of Nearchus |volume=1|issue=1 |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TyHAnAEACAAJ }}</ref>

During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the Achaemenid Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], the name of "Persian (''Pars'') Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts.<ref name="unstats.un.org"/>

At the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the Great, which belongs to the fifth century BC:<ref name="unstats.un.org"/> King Darius says:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dz/|title=DZ – Livius|website=www.livius.org|access-date=2019-03-28}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=I ordered to dig this ([[Canal of the Pharaohs]]) canal from the river that is called Nile (''Pirâva'') and flows in Egypt (''Mudrâyâ''), to the sea that begins in Persia (''Pârsa''). Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended.|sign=Darius I|source=[[Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions]]}}

In [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] times, the Persian Gulf was called ''Pūdīg'', which comes from {{Lang-ae|Pūitika|lit=cleansing}}, a name mentioned in [[Bundahishn]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/ |access-date=2023-03-08 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Persian-gulf-dubai-mus.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|A historical map of the Persian Gulf in [[Sheikh Saeed House|a Dubai museum]] with the word ''Persian'' removed<ref>{{cite web|title=Gulf renamed in aversion to 'Persian'|author=K Darbandi|publisher=Asia Times|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/IJ27Ak01.html|date=Oct 27, 2007|access-date=2010-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127021451/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/IJ27Ak01.html|archive-date=2010-11-27|url-status=unfit}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=All at sea over 'the Gulf'|author=Mahan Abedin|publisher=Asia Times|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html|date=Dec 9, 2004|access-date=2010-11-30|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521084254/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html|archive-date=2016-05-21|url-status=unfit}}</ref>]]

===Modern naming dispute===
{{Main|Persian Gulf naming dispute}}

The body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|title=The World Fact Book|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/iran/|access-date=2010-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=nationsonline.org|title=Political Map of Iran|url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/iran_map.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127182747/http://nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/iran_map.htm|archive-date=2010-11-27|access-date=2010-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations|title=United Nations Cartographic Section (Middle East Map)|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630232206/http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/english/htmain.htm|archive-date=2017-06-30|access-date=2017-06-29}}</ref> [[Arab League|Arab governments]] refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf,<ref name="LINK2">Niusha Boghrati, [http://www.worldpress.org/Mideast/2616.cfm ''Omission of 'Persian Gulf' Name Angers Iran''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109185735/http://www.worldpress.org/Mideast/2616.cfm|date=2007-01-09}}, World Press.com, December 28, 2006</ref> and other countries and organizations have begun using Arabian Gulf.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zraick |first1=Karen |title=Persian (or Arabian) Gulf Is Caught in the Middle of Regional Rivalries |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/13/world/middleeast/persian-gulf-arabian-gulf-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=February 9, 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=January 12, 2016}}</ref> The name '''Gulf of Iran''' (Persian Gulf) is used by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]].<ref name="IHO2">{{cite web|year=1953|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf|archive-date=8 October 2011|access-date=28 December 2020|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|page=21}}</ref>

The dispute in naming has become especially prevalent since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Security Considerations in the Persian Gulf |journal=[[International Security]] |date=Fall 1980 |last=Eilts |first=Hermann |author-link=Hermann Eilts |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=79–113 |doi=10.2307/2538446 |jstor=2538446 |s2cid=154527123 }}</ref> Rivalry between Iran and some Arab states, along with the emergence of [[pan-Arabism]] and [[Arab nationalism]], has seen the name "Arabian Gulf" become predominant in most Arab countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Abedin |first=Mahan |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html |title=All at Sea over 'the Gulf' |work=[[Asia Times Online]] |date=December 4, 2004 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160521084254/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FL09Ak03.html |archive-date=2016-05-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bosworth, C. Edmund |year=1980 |chapter=The Nomenclature of the Persian Gulf |pages=xvii–xxxvi |editor=Cottrell, Alvin J. |title=The Persian Gulf States: A General Survey |location=Baltimore, Maryland |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |quote=Not until the early 1960s does a major new development occur with the adoption by the Arab states bordering on the Persian Gulf of the expression ''al-Khalij al-Arabi'' as weapon in the psychological war with Iran for political influence in the Persian Gulf; but the story of these events belongs to a subsequent chapter on modern political and diplomatic history of the Persian Gulf.|quote-page=xxxiii |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth }}</ref> Names beyond these two have also been applied to or proposed for this body of water.

==History==
===Ancient history===
The region of the Persian Gulf has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic]].<ref name=":0" /> During most of the [[Last Glacial Period]] (115,000–11,700 years [[Before Present]]), due to lowered sea levels (reaching around {{convert|125|metres|ft}} metres below present values during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]]) combined with the shallow depth of the Gulf (on average around {{convert|35|metres|ft}} and at max around {{convert|100|metres|ft}} metres depth) most of the Persian Gulf was exposed as dry land,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |date=July 1996 |title=Shoreline reconstructions for the Persian Gulf since the last glacial maximum |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0012821X96000696 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |language=en |volume=142 |issue=1–2 |pages=43–57 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(<span class="ltr">96</span>)00069-6|bibcode=1996E&PSL.142...43L }}</ref> forming a flat [[floodplain]] where a number of rivers converged. This region may have served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations. The modern marine Gulf was formed when sea level rose during the early [[Holocene]], from around 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. The flooding of the Gulf may have stimulated the development of [[Neolithic]] farming cultures in regions of the Middle East adjacent to the Gulf.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Rose |first=Jeffrey I. |date=December 2010 |title=New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/657397 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=849–883 |doi=10.1086/657397 |s2cid=144935980 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref>[[File:NE 565ad.jpg|upright=1.25|thumb|Map depicting extent of early civilizations around the Persian Gulf, including Lackhmids and Sassanids.]]
[[File:Map of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Map depicting the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian empire]] in relation to the Persian Gulf.]]
[[File:Ras Al Khaimah by Charles Hamilton Smith.jpg|thumb|A painting depicting the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809|British Expeditionary Force]] off the coast of [[Ras Al Khaimah]] in 1809.]]
The world's oldest known civilization ([[Sumer]]) developed along the Persian Gulf and southern [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |date=December 2010 |last=Rose |first=Jeffrey I. |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=849–883 |doi=10.1086/657397 |s2cid=144935980 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/896327 }}</ref> The oldest evidence in the world for seagoing vessels has been found at [[H3 (Kuwait)|H3]] in Kuwait, dating to the mid-sixth millennium BC, when the Gulf was part of an extensive trade network that involved the [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] settlements in Mesopotamia and communities along the entire Gulf coast.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=Robert|date=2006|title=Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/boat-remains-and-maritime-trade-in-the-persian-gulf-during-the-sixth-and-fifth-millennia-bc/98224B03E778DE5C9D3EAA806A5ABCF8|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=80|issue=307|pages=52–63|doi=10.1017/S0003598X0009325X|s2cid=162674282 |issn=0003-598X}}</ref>

For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the [[fourth millennium BC]], the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the [[Dilmun]] civilization. For a long time, the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was [[Gerrha]]. In the second century [[Lakhmids|the Lakhum tribe]], who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the [[Lakhmid|Lakhmid Kingdom]] along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by [[Shapur II]] against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shorelines.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA179|title=E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936 |author=M. Th. Houtsma|access-date=2010-11-26|isbn=978-90-04-09796-4|year=1993|publisher=BRILL }}</ref> During the seventh century the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persian empire]] conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores.

Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the [[Median Empire|Median]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]], [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] and [[Parthian empire|Parthian]] empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king [[Darius the Great]] (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.<ref name=navy>{{cite book|title=Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war|author=Kaveh Farrokh|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2007|page=68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p7kltwf9yrwC&pg=PA68|isbn=978-1-84603-108-3}}</ref> Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the [[British East India Company]], and the [[British Royal Navy|Royal Navy]] by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including [[Shatt-al-Arab]], [[Tigris river|Tigris]], and the [[Nile]] in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.<ref name=navy/>

The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.<ref name=navy/><ref>{{cite book|title=From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire|author=Pierre Briant|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year=2006|page=761|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&pg=PA761|isbn=978-1-57506-120-7}}</ref>

Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the [[Parthian Empire]], the [[Sassanid Empire]] ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the [[Silk Road]], were important trade routes in the Sassanid Empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf. [[Siraf]], an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, located in what is now the Iranian province of [[Bushehr]], is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the fourth century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bips.ac.uk/sites/siraf|title=Siraf|author=British Institute of Persian Studies|access-date=2010-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716111330/http://www.bips.ac.uk/sites/siraf|archive-date=2011-07-16|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Colonial era===
{{See also|Portuguese rule|British residency of the Persian Gulf}}

Portuguese influence in the Persian Gulf lasted for 250 years;<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Mission of the Portuguese Augustinians to Persia and Beyond (1602–1747) Por John M. Flannery|isbn = 978-90-04-24382-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz5TO9BNFH8C&q=Portuguese+kong+persian+Gulf+1730&pg=PA108|last1 = Flannery|first1 = John M.|year = 2013| publisher=BRILL }}</ref> however, since the beginning of the 16th century, Portuguese dominance<ref>{{Cite web|title=THE AGE OF COLONIALISM Persian Gulf States Table of Contents|url=http://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/11.htm}}</ref> contended with the local powers and the Ottoman Empire. Following the arrival of the English and the Dutch, the Safavid Empire allied with the newcomers to contest Portuguese dominance of the seas in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Baloch and Balochistan: A Historical Account from the Beginning to the fall of Baloch state Por Naseer Dashti|isbn = 978-1-4669-5896-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIjyLNpusbAC&q=Persian+gulf+portuguese+dominance&pg=PA154|last1 = Dashti|first1 = Naseer|date = October 2012| publisher=Trafford }}</ref>[[File:Hormuz fort-Correia.png|thumb|left|The [[Fort of Our Lady of the Conception|Portuguese Castle]] on Hormuz Island ([[Gaspar Correia]]. "''Lendas da Índia''", {{Circa|1556}})]]

[[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following [[Vasco da Gama]]'s voyages of exploration saw them battle the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander [[Portuguese invasion of Bahrain|Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain]] to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. On April 29, 1602, [[Abbas the Great|Shāh Abbās]], the [[Persian people|Persian]] emperor of the [[Safavid Persian Empire]], expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,<ref name="j163353">{{cite journal|author=Juan R. I. Cole|title=Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800|jstor=163353|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=19|issue= 2 |year=1987|pages= 177–203 [186]|doi=10.1017/s0020743800031834|s2cid=162702326 }}</ref> and that date is commemorated as [[Persian Gulf naming dispute#National Persian Gulf Day|National Persian Gulf day]] in [[Iran]].<ref>{{webarchive |date=21 May 2013 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521171101/http://english.irib.ir/news/political/item/60225-persian-gulf-national-day-in-foreign-ministry}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] from the Portuguese; much of the trade was diverted to the town of [[Bandar Abbas|Bandar 'Abbās]], which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. The [[Ottoman Empire]] reasserted itself into Eastern Arabia in 1871.<ref>Rahman 1979, pp. 138–139</ref> Under military and political pressure from the governor of the Ottoman [[Vilayet of Baghdad]], [[Midhat Pasha]], the ruling [[Al Thani]] tribe submitted peacefully to Ottoman rule.<ref name="Rogan1199">{{cite journal |last1=Rogan|first1=Eugene|date=November 1999|title=Review of The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Qatar by Frederick F. Anscombe; The Blood-Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy, 1797–1820 by Charles E. Davies; The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia and the Gulf, 1745–1900 by Hala Fattah |journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies |volume=26 |issue=2|pages=339–342|jstor=195948 |doi=10.1080/13530199908705688 |last2=Murphey |first2=Rhoads |last3=Masalha |first3=Nur |last4=Durac |first4=Vincent |last5=Hinnebusch |first5=Raymond}}</ref> The Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the area with the start of [[World War I]] and the need for troops in various other frontiers.<ref name="diwan">{{cite web|url=https://www.diwan.gov.qa/about-qatar/qatars-rulers/sheikh-abdullah-bin-jassim-al-thani?sc_lang=en|title=Shaikh Abdullah Bin Jassim Al Thani – Amiri Diwan|publisher=Amiri Diwan|access-date=7 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307214352/https://www.diwan.gov.qa/about-qatar/qatars-rulers/sheikh-abdullah-bin-jassim-al-thani?sc_lang=en|archive-date=2018-03-07|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[World War II]], the [[Allies of World War II|Western Allies]] used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to the USSR, through a pathway known historically as the "[[Persian Corridor]]". Britain utilized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain in order to make use of the [[Trans-Iranian Railway]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Command Decisions|author1=Martin Blumenson |author2=Robert W. Coakley |author3=Stetson Conn |author4=Byron Fairchild |author5=Richard M. Leighton |author6=Charles V.P. von Luttichau |author7=Martin Blumenson |author8=Robert W. Coakley |author9=Stetson Conn |author10=Byron Fairchild |author11=Richard M. Leighton |author12=Charles V.P. von Luttichau |author13=Charles B. MacDonald |author14=Sidney T. Mathews |author15=Maurice Matloff |author16=Ralph S. Mavrogordato |author17=Leo J. Meyer |author18=John Miller, Jr. |author19=Louis Morton |author20=Forrest C. Pogue |author21=Roland G. Ruppenthal |author22=Robert Ross Smith |author23=Earl F. Ziemke |publisher=Government Printing Office |page=225 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XIxWWhu9ARoC&pg=PA225|year=1960 }}</ref> The Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment to Soviet Union against the [[Operation Barbarossa|Nazi invasion]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Persian Corridor and aid to Russia, Volume 7, Part 1|author=T. H. Vail Motter|publisher=Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army |year=1952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t3QGAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> The [[piracy in the Persian Gulf]] was prevalent until the 19th century. Many of the most notable historical instances of piracy were perpetrated by the [[Al Qasimi]] tribe. This led to the British mounting the [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/sheikh-saqr-bin-mohammed-al-qasimi|title=Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed al-Qasimi obituary|work=The Guardian|date=1 November 2010}}</ref> The campaign led to the signing of the [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820]] between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the '[[Pirate Coast]]'.
From 1763 until 1971, the [[British Empire]] maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the [[Trucial States]])<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OnhCBuXmeWYC&pg=PA172|title= Trucial States|author=Donald Hawley |page=172 |access-date=2010-11-19 |isbn=978-0-04-953005-8 |year=1970|publisher= Ardent Media|author-link= Donald Hawley}}</ref> and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the [[British Residency of the Persian Gulf]].

===Modern history===
[[File:USS Hawes (FFG-53), USS William H. Standley (CG-32) and USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7) escort tanker Gas King in the Persian Gullf on 21 October 1987 (6432283).jpg|thumb|[[Operation Earnest Will]]: Tanker convoy No. 12 under [[United States Navy|US Navy]] escort in October 1987]]
The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 [[Iran–Iraq War]], in which each side attacked the other's [[oil tanker]]s. It is the namesake of the 1991 [[Gulf War]], the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed [[Iraq]]'s invasion of [[Kuwait]]. The United States' role in the Persian Gulf grew in the second half of the Twentieth Century.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncfIAAAAQBAJ|title=The Persian Gulf in History|last=Potter|first=L.|date=2009-01-05|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-61845-9|language=en}}</ref> On July 3, 1988, [[Iran Air Flight 655]] was shot down by the U.S. military (which had mistaken the [[Airbus A300]] operating the flight for an Iranian [[Grumman F-14 Tomcat|F-14 Tomcat]]) while it was flying over the Persian Gulf, killing all 290 people on board.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19880703-0|title=ASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300B2-203 EP-IBU Qeshm Island|last=Ranter|first=Harro|website=www.aviation-safety.net|access-date=2020-01-11}}</ref> The United Kingdom maintains a profile in the region; in 2006 alone, over 1&nbsp;million British nationals visited [[Dubai]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/24/foreignpolicy.iran|title=Blair was dangerously off target in his condemnation of Iran|last=Beaumont|first=Peter|date=December 23, 2006|work=[[The Guardian]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730023813/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/24/foreignpolicy.iran|archive-date=2016-07-30|url-status=live|location=[[London]]|author-link=Peter Beaumont (journalist)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-britain-diplomacy/classified-document-on-bahrain-rankles-britain-decades-later-idUKKBN0O61YZ20150521|title=Classified document on Bahrain rankles Britain decades later|date=22 May 2015|access-date=22 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130051916/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-bahrain-britain-diplomacy/classified-document-on-bahrain-rankles-britain-decades-later-idUKKBN0O61YZ20150521|archive-date=2022-01-30|url-status=live|work=Reuters|quote=The case shows how alive the history of British colonial rule still is in the Gulf today}}</ref> In 2018, the UK opened a permanent military base, {{HMS|Jufair}}, in the Persian Gulf, the first since it withdrew from [[East of Suez]] in 1971 and is developing a support facility in Oman.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-30355953|title=UK to establish £15m permanent Mid East military base|date=December 6, 2014|access-date=2018-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124233435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-30355953|archive-date=2017-11-24|url-status=live|publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/ORGDec14EastSuezWestHelmand_0.pdf|title=East of Suez, West from Helmand: British Expeditionary Force and the next SDSR|date=December 2014|publisher=Oxford Research Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702074143/http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/ORGDec14EastSuezWestHelmand_0.pdf|archive-date=2 July 2015|access-date=22 May 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/the-uk-in-oman-a-new-support-facility-for-the-british-armed-forces/|title=The UK in Oman – A new support facility for the British Armed Forces|last=Tossini|first=J. Vitor|date=2018-02-20|website=UK Defence Journal|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-04-10}}</ref>

==Cities and population==
Eight nations have coasts along the Persian Gulf: [[Bahrain]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The Persian gulf's strategic location has made it an ideal place for human development over time. Today, many major cities of the Middle East are located in this region.

{|
|<gallery mode="packed">
File:سواحل کیش در روز طبیعت1400011322240458522511884.jpg|[[Kish island]], [[Iran]]
File:Murthadha.80.jpg|[[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]]
File:Abu dhabi skylines 2014.jpg|[[Abu Dhabi]], [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]
File:Dubai skyline unsplash.jpg|Dubai skyline at night, [[Dubai]], UAE
File:Bandarabbashomahotel.jpg|[[Bandar Abbas]], Iran
File:Dhow in the fjords of Khasab, Oman - panoramio.jpg|[[Khasab]], [[Musandam Governorate|Musandam]], [[Oman]]
File:Khobar At night.jpg|[[Khobar]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
File:West Bay district of Doha seen from the corniche at night.jpg|[[Doha]], [[Qatar]]
File:Manama Night (59168542).jpeg|[[Manama]], [[Bahrain]]
File:Basrah faw shat alarab.jpg|[[Al-Faw]], [[Iraq]]
</gallery>
|}

==Wildlife==
{{see also|Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert}}
The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique because of the Persian Gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near [[Local extinction|extirpation]] or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to [[dugong]]s, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. However, the Persian Gulf is not as biologically diverse as the [[Red Sea]].<ref>Pernetta, John. (2004). Guide to the Oceans. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, Inc. p. 205. {{ISBN|978-1-55297-942-6}}.</ref>

Overall, the wildlife of the Persian Gulf is endangered from both global factors, and regional, local negligence. Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parstimes.com/environment/pg_pollution.html|title=Pollution in Persian Gulf|author=Morteza Aminmansour/Pars Times|access-date=2010-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126155602/http://parstimes.com/environment/pg_pollution.html|archive-date=2010-11-26|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Aquatic mammals===
{{Weasel|date=July 2015}}
Along the [[Mediterranean sea (oceanography)|mediterranean regions]] of the Arabian Sea, including the Persian Gulf, the [[Red Sea]], the [[Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch|Gulf of Kutch]], the [[Gulf of Suez]], the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], the [[Gulf of Aden]], and the [[Gulf of Oman]], [[dolphin]]s and [[finless porpoise]]s are the most common marine mammals in the waters, while larger [[whale]]s and [[orca]]s are rarer today.<ref>Dr. Gheilani A.M.H. [https://www.trc.gov.om/TRCWebsite/files/Whales%20and%20Dolphins%20present..pdf Whales and Dolphins in Arabian Sea: Arabian Sea Survey (2007–2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217053450/https://www.trc.gov.om/TRCWebsite/files/Whales%20and%20Dolphins%20present..pdf |date=2014-12-17 }}. The Marine Science and Fisheries Center in the Ministry of Fisheries Wealth. Retrieved on December 17, 2014</ref> Historically, whales had been abundant in the Persian Gulf before commercial hunts wiped them out.<ref>Jongbloed M. [http://www.alshindagah.com/janfeb2004/whales.html Whales and dolphins in the Gulf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217050416/http://www.alshindagah.com/janfeb2004/whales.html |date=2014-12-17 }}. [[Al Shindagha]]. Retrieved on December 17, 2014</ref><ref>Jackson J. 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QGU1X1HMuQAC&dq=gulf+of+aqaba+whale&pg=PA60 Diving with Giants]{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. pp.59. [[New Holland Publishers]]. Retrieved on December 17, 2014</ref> Whales were reduced even further by illegal mass hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>Clapham P., Ivashchenko Y. [http://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/mfr711/mfr7114.pdf. Marine Fisheries Review]. Retrieved on December 17, 2014</ref> Along with [[Bryde's whale]]s,<ref>Lambros M.. [https://www.livinq8.com/postdetails.php?post_cat=OUTDOORS%20IN%20Q8&post_id=1412 Whale Watching In Kuwait] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921001141/https://www.livinq8.com/postdetails.php?post_cat=OUTDOORS%20IN%20Q8&post_id=1412 |date=2017-09-21 }}. LIVIN Q8. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref><ref>Burahmah
 I.. 2013. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcHDafyiao0 Whale seen in kuwait seas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120172659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcHDafyiao0 |date=2018-11-20 }}. [[YouTube]]. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref><ref>جرائم ومحاكم. 2015. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_GA1tIdLLs حوت يسبح قرب أبراج الكويت] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120172659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_GA1tIdLLs |date=2018-11-20 }}. Youtube. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref><ref>Khalaf N.. 2014. [https://issuu.com/dr-normanalibassamkhalaf/docs/blue_whale_at_educational_science_m The 24-meters Blue Whale Skeleton at the Educational Science Museum in Kuwait City, State of Kuwait] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019022514/https://issuu.com/dr-normanalibassamkhalaf/docs/blue_whale_at_educational_science_m |date=2017-10-19 }}. [[issuu]]. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref> these once common residents can still can be seen in deeper marginal seas such as Gulf of Aden,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20040430_log_transcript.html|title=PBS – The Voyage of the Odyssey – Track the Voyage – Maldives|website=[[PBS]]|access-date=2017-09-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019022514/https://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20040430_log_transcript.html|archive-date=2017-10-19|url-status=live}}</ref> Israel coasts,<ref name=cbd>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/ebsaws-2015-02/other/ebsaws-2015-02-gobi-submission9-en.pdf |title=Summary review of cetaceans of the Red Sea |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011165214/https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/mar/ebsaws-2015-02/other/ebsaws-2015-02-gobi-submission9-en.pdf |archive-date=2021-10-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uminchumogi.blog111.fc2.com/blog-entry-227.html|title=ホルムズ海峡で<span class="ltr">GT</span>フィッシング②|last=茂木陽一|access-date=2016-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310104940/http://uminchumogi.blog111.fc2.com/blog-entry-227.html|archive-date=2016-03-10|url-status=live}}</ref> Other species such as the critically endangered Arabian [[humpback whale]],<ref>Minton G.. 2017. [https://arabianseawhalenetwork.org/2017/09/15/paper-published-on-humpback-whales-in-the-persian-gulf/ Pre-print manuscript published on humpback whales in the Persian Gulf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921045900/https://arabianseawhalenetwork.org/2017/09/15/paper-published-on-humpback-whales-in-the-persian-gulf/ |date=2017-09-21 }}. Arabian Sea Whale Network. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref> (also historically common in Gulf of Aden<ref>{{cite web |last1=Articles/meps |title=pdf |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/149/m149p013.pdf |website=www.int-res.com}}</ref> and increasingly sighted in the Red Sea since 2006, including in the Gulf of Aqaba),<ref name=cbd/> [[omura's whale]],<ref>{{cite bioRxiv|author1=Sharif Ranjbar S.|author2= Dakhteh S.M. |author3= Waerebeek V.K.|year=2016|title=Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai ) stranding on Qeshm Island, Iran: further evidence for a wide (sub)tropical distribution, including the Persian Gulf|biorxiv=10.1101/042614}}</ref><ref>Babu R. 2017. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qwk5IO1lSbk Whale tracing us in a boat at Kuwait sea area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120172659/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qwk5IO1lSbk |date=2018-11-20 }}. Youtube. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref> [[minke whale]], and [[orca]] also swim into the Persian Gulf, while many other large species such as [[blue whale]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Imisdocs/publications |title=pdf |url=http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/246400.pdf |website=www.vliz.be |access-date=2016-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305040958/http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/246400.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-05 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sei whale|sei]],<ref>Hoath R.. 2009. [https://books.google.com/books?id=agWfg6oEKKkC&q=gulf+of+aden+&pg=PA115 A Field Guide to the Mammals of Egypt]. pp.112. The [[American University in Cairo Press]]. Retrieved on February 26. 2016</ref> and [[sperm whale]]s were once migrants into the [[Gulf of Oman]] and off the coasts in deeper waters,<ref>Dr. Perrin F.W., Koch C.C. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2rkHQpToi9sC&dq=Gulf+of+Aden+whale&pg=PA611 Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals]. pp.611. [[Academic Press]]. Retrieved on December 17, 2014</ref> and still migrate into the Red Sea,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sailingluna.nl/Yemenn.htm|title=Yemen|access-date=2016-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307081229/http://www.sailingluna.nl/Yemenn.htm|archive-date=2016-03-07|url-status=live}}</ref> but mainly in deeper waters of outer seas. In 2017, waters of the Persian Gulf along [[Emirate of Abu Dhabi|Abu Dhabi]] were revealed to hold the world's largest population of [[Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin]]s.<ref>WAM.
 2017. [http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/abu-dhabi-has-world-s-largest-population-of-humpback-dolphins-2017-09-17-1.659122 Abu Dhabi has world's largest population of humpback dolphins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921001601/http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/abu-dhabi-has-world-s-largest-population-of-humpback-dolphins-2017-09-17-1.659122 |date=2017-09-21 }}. [[Emirates 24/7]]. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref><ref>[[Gulf News]]. 2017. [http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/environment/abu-dhabi-proves-a-haven-for-humpback-dolphins-1.2091551 Abu Dhabi proves a haven for humpback dolphins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920191453/http://gulfnews.com/news/uae/environment/abu-dhabi-proves-a-haven-for-humpback-dolphins-1.2091551 |date=2017-09-20 }}. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref><ref>Sanker A..
 2017. [https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/abu-dhabi/abu-dhabi-leads-world-in-humpback-dolphin-numbers- Abu Dhabi leads world in humpback dolphin numbers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921000950/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/nation/abu-dhabi/abu-dhabi-leads-world-in-humpback-dolphin-numbers- |date=2017-09-21 }}. [[Khaleej Times]]. Retrieved on September 21, 2017</ref>

One of the more unusual marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is the [[dugong]] (''Dugong dugon''). Also called "sea cows", for their grazing habits and mild manner resembling livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and they can grow up to {{convert|3|m|abbr=off}} in length. These gentle mammals feed on sea grass and are closer relatives of certain land mammals than are [[dolphins]] and [[whales]].<ref name=dugong>{{cite web|url=http://www.american.edu/TED/persian.htm |title=Case Study |publisher=American.edu |access-date=2009-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624134459/http://www1.american.edu/TED/persian.htm |archive-date=June 24, 2009}}</ref> Their simple grass diet is negatively affected by new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly the construction of artificial islands by Arab states and pollution from [[Gulf War oil spill|oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war"]] and various other natural and artificial causes. Uncontrolled hunting has also had a negative impact on the survival of dugongs.<ref name=dugong/> After Australian waters, which are estimated to contain some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia make the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species, hosting some 7,500 remaining dugongs. However, the current number of dugongs is dwindling, and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is.<ref name=dugong/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/03/dugong-mermaid-persian-gulf/ |title=Persian Gulf Mermaids Face Environmental Threats |publisher=Maurice Picow |date=2010-03-04 |access-date=2010-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114092625/http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/03/dugong-mermaid-persian-gulf/ |archive-date=2011-01-14 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest, ever-present international conflict, the most lucrative world supply of oil, and the lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, have had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs.

===Birds===
The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the Persian Gulf home. Concerns regarding the endangerment of the ''kalbaensis'' subspecies of the [[collared kingfisher]]s were raised by conservationists over real estate development by the United Arab Emirates and Oman.<ref name=d/> Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located {{convert|80|mi|0|abbr=out}} from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman.<ref name=d/> Such real estate expansion could prove devastating to this subspecies. A UN plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.<ref name=d/> Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate many of whom have governmental connections.<ref name=d/>

Real estate development in the Persian Gulf by the United Arab Emirates and Oman also raised concerns that habitats of species such as the [[hawksbill turtle]], [[greater flamingo]], and [[booted warbler]] may be destroyed.<ref name=d/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn55/mtn55p26.shtml|title=Turtles Rehabilitated After Persian Gulf Oil Spills|author1=Tim Thomas|author2=Ian Robinson|name-list-style=amp|year=2001|access-date=2010-11-23|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910183528/http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/archives/mtn55/mtn55p26.shtml|archive-date=2012-09-10|url-status=live}}</ref> The dolphins that frequent the Persian Gulf in northern waters around Iran are also at risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse [[seine fishing]] nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's [[Hormozgan]] province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dolphins of Persian Gulf are in danger|author=Mandana Javidinejad|publisher=Payvand News Agency|year=2007|access-date=December 25, 2010|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/07/sep/1339.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629095910/http://www.payvand.com/news/07/sep/1339.html|archive-date=2011-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Iran: Spill, Dolphin Deaths Spark Alarm At Persian Gulf Pollution|author=Vahid Sepehri|publisher=Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty|date=October 3, 2007|access-date=December 25, 2010|url=http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1078857.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114055950/http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1078857.html|archive-date=2011-01-14|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Fish and reefs===
The Persian Gulf is home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native.<ref name=f>{{cite web |url=http://fish.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Saltwater_Persian_Gulf.htm |title=Fish Species in Persian Gulf |author=Jen/fishbase.org |date=2003-06-30 |access-date=2010-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702044308/http://fish.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Saltwater_Persian_Gulf.htm |archive-date=2010-07-02 |url-status=live }}</ref> Of these 700 species, more than 80% are reef associated.<ref name=f/> These reefs are primarily rocky, but there are also a few [[coral reef]]s. Compared to the Red Sea, the coral reefs in the Persian Gulf are relatively few and far between.<ref name=Debelius1993>{{cite book | author=Debelius, H. | title=Indian Ocean Tropical Fish Guide | year=1993 | publisher=Aquaprint Verlag GmbH | page=5 | isbn=3-927991-01-5 }}</ref><ref name=Emery1956>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1306/5CEAE595-16BB-11D7-8645000102C1865D|title = Sediments and Water of Persian Gulf|year = 1956|last1 = Emery |first1=K. O. |journal = AAPG Bulletin|volume = 40}}</ref><ref name=Pohl2014>{{cite journal  |author=Thomas Pohl |author2=Sameh W. Al-Muqdadi |author3=Malik H. Ali |author4=Nadia Al-Mudaffar Fawzi |author5=Hermann Ehrlich |author6=Broder Merkel | title=Discovery of a living coral reef in the coastal waters of Iraq | year=2014 | journal=Sci. Rep. | volume=4 | page=4250 | doi=10.1038/srep04250 | pmc=3945051 | pmid=24603901| bibcode=2014NatSR...4E4250P }}</ref> This is primarily connected to the influx of major rivers, especially the [[Shatt al-Arab]] (Euphrates and Tigris), which carry large amounts of sediment (most reef-building corals require strong light) and causes relatively large variations in temperature and salinity (corals in general are poorly suited to large variations).<ref name=Debelius1993/><ref name=Emery1956/><ref name=Pohl2014/> Nevertheless, coral reefs have been found along sections of coast of all countries in the Persian Gulf.<ref name=Pohl2014/> Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the Persian Gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the Persian Gulf, partially owing to [[global warming]] but mostly to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like the UAE and Bahrain.<ref name=dump>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/06/coral-bahrain-construction/|title=Dumping by Construction Crews Killing Bahrain Coral|publisher=Maurice Picow|date=2010-06-16|access-date=2010-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031214259/http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/06/coral-bahrain-construction/|archive-date=2010-10-31|url-status=live}}</ref> Construction garbage such as tires, cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the [[construction waste]] creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.<ref name=dump/> The result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival.

===Flora===
A great example of this [[symbiosis]] are the [[mangroves]] in the Persian Gulf, which require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them.<ref name=d>{{cite web|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/07/03/gulfwildlife_pla.html?category=earth&guid=20060703160030 |title=Development in Persian Gulf Threatens Wildlife |access-date=2008-06-30 |author=Jim Krane |date=July 3, 2006 |publisher=Discovery Channel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923035904/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/07/03/gulfwildlife_pla.html?category=earth&guid=20060703160030 |archive-date=2006-09-23}}</ref> Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus ''[[Avicennia]]'' or ''[[Rhizophora]]'' that flourish in the salt water shallows of the Persian Gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water, as the corals are to biological health of the Persian Gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the Persian Gulf.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mangal.html|title=Mangals|author=SunySB|access-date=2010-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206074225/http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/mangal.html|archive-date=2010-12-06|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Expression of mangrove allene oxide cyclase enhances salt tolerance in Escherichia coli, yeast, and tobacco cells |journal=[[Plant and Cell Physiology]] |date=Fall 1980 |last1=Yamada |first1=Akiyo |last2=Saitoh |first2=Takeo |last3=Mimura |first3=Tetsuro |last4=Ozeki |first4=Yoshihiro |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=903–910 |doi=10.1093/pcp/pcf108 |pmid=12198193 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them.

===Gallery===
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Dugong.jpg|[[Dugong]] mother and her offspring in shallow water
File:HengamDolphins.jpg|[[Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin]]s off the southern shore of Iran, around [[Hengam Island]]
File:Dolphins Oman.JPG|[[Spinner dolphin]]s [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour|leaping]] in the Persian Gulf
File:The-Worlds-Most-Isolated-and-Distinct-Whale-Population-Humpback-Whales-of-the-Arabian-Sea-pone.0114162.s001.tif|Critically endangered Arabian [[humpback whale]]s (being the most isolated, and the only resident population in the world) off [[Dhofar Governorate|Dhofar]], Oman
File:Nakhl-Minoo.jpg|[[Arecaceae|Palm]] and [[sunset]] in [[Minoo Island]]
</gallery>

== Oil and gas ==
{{See also|Strait of Hormuz}}
[[File:Oil and Gas Infrastructure Persian Gulf (large).gif|thumb|[[Petroleum|Oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] pipelines and fields]]
The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of petroleum,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Northrup|first=Cynthia Clark|title=Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to the Present|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|location=London, UK|via=Credo Reference}}</ref> and related industries dominate the region. [[Safaniya Oil Field]], the world's largest offshore [[oilfield]], is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial [[liquefied natural gas]] (LNG) and petrochemical industry.

In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude [[Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification|oil reserves]], and about 35% of the world's [[natural gas]] reserves.<ref>{{cite web|author=Persian Gulf Online|title=Persian Gulf Oil and Gas Exports Fact Sheet (U.S. Department of Energy)|url=http://www.persiangulfonline.org/interestgroups/oilfacts.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714233158/http://www.persiangulfonline.org/interestgroups/oilfacts.htm|archive-date=July 14, 2009|access-date=March 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)|title=Persian Gulf Oil and Gas Export Fact Sheet|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/pgulf2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102032341/http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/pgulf2.html|archive-date=January 2, 2011|publisher=EIA/DOE (Energy Information Administration/Department of Energy)}}</ref> The oil-rich countries (excluding [[Iraq]]) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the ''[[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Persian Gulf States]]''. Iraq's egress to the Persian Gulf is narrow and easily blockaded, consisting of the marshy river delta of the [[Shatt al-Arab]], which carries the waters of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]] rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran.

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
* [[Eastern Arabia]]
* [[Eastern Arabian cuisine]]
* [[Cradle of civilization]]
* [[Deluge (prehistoric)]]
* [[Musandam Peninsula]]
* [[History of the United Arab Emirates#The pearling industry and the Portuguese empire: 16th - 18th century]]
* [[Saeed bin Butti#Perpetual Maritime Truce]]
* [[Trucial States]]
* [[Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi#Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853]]
* [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809]]
* [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819]]
* [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820]]
* [[Geography of Iran]]
* [[Geography of Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Geography of Oman]]
* [[Geography of United Arab Emirates]]
* [[Geography of Qatar]]
* [[Geography of Bahrain]]
* [[Geography of Kuwait]]
* [[Geography of Iraq]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
{{Commons category|Persian Gulf}}
* [http://www.qdl.qa/en/articles-from-our-experts Qatar Digital Library] – an online portal providing access to previously undigitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persian-gulf-i-in-antiquity Persian Gulf] – ''Encyclopædia Iranica''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050515205629/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/hormuz.html The Portuguese in the Arabian peninsula and in the Persian Gulf] (archived 15 May 2005)
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/54272266@N06/6863021370/in/photostream/ 32 historical map of Persian gulf], at [[Flickr]]
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11771/ Persian Gulf] from 1920
* [https://gulfnews.com/travel/sharks-in-the-arabian-gulf-1.1679153 Sharks in the Gulf]
; Videos
*[https://japan.mfa.gov.ir/en/newsview/536033  Documents on the Persian Gulf's name the eternal heritage ancient time by Dr.Mohammad Ajam<!-- -->]

{{Articles Related to Persian Gulf}}
{{List of seas}}
{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Petroleum industry}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Persian Gulf| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
[[Category:Bahrain–Saudi Arabia border]]
[[Category:Bahrain–Qatar border]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Bahrain]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Iraq]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Kuwait]]
[[Category:Geography of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Geography of West Asia]]
[[Category:Seas of Asia]]
[[Category:Seas of Iran]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Bodies of water of Qatar]]
[[Category:Iran–Iraq border]]
[[Category:Iraq–Kuwait border]]
[[Category:Kuwait–Saudi Arabia border]]
[[Category:Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Qatar–Saudi Arabia border]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabia–United Arab Emirates border]]
[[Category:Western Indo-Pacific]]