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{{For|the artist|Qigong (artist)}} |
{{For|the artist|Qigong (artist)}} |
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{{Infobox Chinese |
{{Infobox Chinese |
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| pic = Meister Lam in Jiuzhaigou2.jpg |
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| piccap = Meister Lam in Jiuzhaiguo, Sichuan |
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| piccap = Qigong practitioners at [[World Tai Chi and Qigong Day]] event in [[Manhattan]]. |
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==History and origins== |
==History and origins== |
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{{main|History of qigong}} |
{{main|History of qigong}} |
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[[File:Qigong taiji meditation.jpg|thumb|The physical exercise chart; a painting on silk depicting the practice of ''daoyin''; unearthed in 1973 in [[Hunan]] Province, China, from the 2nd-century BC [[Western Han]] burial site of [[Mawangdui|Mawangdui Han tombs site]], Tomb Number 3.]] |
[[File:Qigong taiji meditation.jpg|thumb|The physical exercise chart; a painting on silk depicting the practice of ''daoyin''; unearthed in 1973 in [[Hunan]] Province, China, from the 2nd-century BC [[Western Han]] burial site of [[Mawangdui|Mawangdui Han tombs site]], Tomb Number 3.]] |
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With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating back more than 2,000 years, a wide variety of qigong forms have developed within different segments of Chinese society:<ref name="YJM2">{{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Jwing-Ming. |title=The root of Chinese Chi kung: the secrets of Chi kung training |publisher=Yang's Martial Arts Association |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-940871-07-6}}</ref> in traditional Chinese medicine for preventive and curative functions;<ref name="Holland">{{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Alex |title=Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55643-326-9}}</ref> in [[Confucianism]] to promote longevity and improve moral character;<ref name="Cohen" /> in [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]] as part of meditative practice;<ref name="LWW">{{Cite book |last1=Liang |first1=Shou-Yu |title=Qigong Empowerment: A Guide to Medical, Taoist, Buddhist, and Wushu Energy Cultivation |last2=Wu |first2=Wen-Ching |last3=Breiter-Wu |first3=Denise |publisher=Way of the Dragon Pub |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-889659-02-2}}</ref> and in Chinese martial arts to enhance self defending abilities.<ref name="yeyoung_qigong_origin">{{Cite web |last=YeYoung |first=Bing |title=Origins of Qi Gong |url=http://literati-tradition.com/qi_gong_origins.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017031024/http://www.literati-tradition.com/qi_gong_origins.html |archive-date=17 October 2011 |access-date=14 October 2011 |publisher=YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA (http://literati-tradition.com)}}</ref><ref name="YJM3">{{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Jwing-Ming |url=https://archive.org/details/qigongforhealthm0000yang |title=Qigong for health and martial arts: exercises and meditation |publisher=YMAA Publication Center |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-886969-57-5}}</ref> Contemporary qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate traditions, in particular the [[Taoist meditation|Taoist meditative practice]] of "internal alchemy" (''[[neidan]]''), the ancient meditative practices of "circulating ''qi''" ([[Xingqi (circulating breath)|''xingqi'']]) and "standing meditation" (''[[zhan zhuang]]''), and the slow gymnastic breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (''[[daoyin]]''). Traditionally, qigong was taught by master to students through training and [[Oral tradition|oral transmission]], with an emphasis on meditative practice by scholars and gymnastic or dynamic practice by the working masses.<ref name="miura_1989">{{Cite book |last=Miura |first=Kunio |title=Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques |publisher=Center For Chinese Studies: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-89264-085-0 |editor-last=Livia Kohl |chapter=The Revival of Qi}}</ref> |
With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating back more than 2,000 years, a wide variety of qigong forms have developed within different segments of Chinese society:<ref name="YJM2">{{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Jwing-Ming. |title=The root of Chinese Chi kung: the secrets of Chi kung training |publisher=Yang's Martial Arts Association |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-940871-07-6}}</ref> in traditional Chinese medicine for preventive and curative functions;<ref name="Holland">{{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Alex |title=Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55643-326-9}}</ref> in [[Confucianism]] to promote longevity and improve moral character;<ref name="Cohen" /> in [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]] as part of meditative practice;<ref name="LWW">{{Cite book |last1=Liang |first1=Shou-Yu |title=Qigong Empowerment: A Guide to Medical, Taoist, Buddhist, and Wushu Energy Cultivation |last2=Wu |first2=Wen-Ching |last3=Breiter-Wu |first3=Denise |publisher=Way of the Dragon Pub |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-889659-02-2}}</ref> and in Chinese martial arts to enhance self defending abilities.<ref name="yeyoung_qigong_origin">{{Cite web |last=YeYoung |first=Bing |title=Origins of Qi Gong |url=http://literati-tradition.com/qi_gong_origins.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017031024/http://www.literati-tradition.com/qi_gong_origins.html |archive-date=17 October 2011 |access-date=14 October 2011 |publisher=YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA (http://literati-tradition.com)}}</ref><ref name="YJM3">{{Cite book |last=Yang |first=Jwing-Ming |url=https://archive.org/details/qigongforhealthm0000yang |title=Qigong for health and martial arts: exercises and meditation |publisher=YMAA Publication Center |year=1998 |isbn=978-1-886969-57-5}}</ref> Contemporary qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate traditions, in particular the [[Taoist meditation|Taoist meditative practice]] of "internal alchemy" (''[[neidan]]''), the ancient meditative practices of "circulating ''qi''" ([[Xingqi (circulating breath)|''xingqi'']]) and "standing meditation" (''[[zhan zhuang]]''), and the slow gymnastic breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (''[[daoyin]]''). Traditionally, qigong was taught by master to students through training and [[Oral tradition|oral transmission]], with an emphasis on meditative practice by scholars and gymnastic or dynamic practice by the working masses.<ref name="miura_1989">{{Cite book |last=Miura |first=Kunio |title=Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques |publisher=Center For Chinese Studies: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-89264-085-0 |editor-last=Livia Kohl |chapter=The Revival of Qi}}</ref> |
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=== From 1949 to 1999: the qigong boom === |
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Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the mainland Chinese government tried to integrate disparate qigong approaches into one coherent system, with the intention of establishing a firm scientific basis for qigong practice. In 1949, Liu Guizhen established the name "qigong" to refer to the system of life-preserving practices that he and his associates developed, based on ''daoyin'' and other philosophical traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Voigt |first=John |date=Autumn 2013 |title=The Man Who Invented "Qigong" |url=http://www.qigonginstitute.org/html/papers/The%20Man%20Who%20Invented%20Qigong-1.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health & Fitness |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=28–33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019043412/http://www.qigonginstitute.org/html/papers/The%20Man%20Who%20Invented%20Qigong-1.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern or scientific interpretation of qigong.<ref name="Otehode">{{Cite book |last=Otehode |first=Utiraruto |url=https://archive.org/details/makingreligionma00ashi |title=Making religion, making the state: the politics of religion in modern China |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8047-5842-0 |editor-last=Ashiwa |editor-first=Yoshiko |location=Stanford, Calif. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingreligionma00ashi/page/n251 241]–265 |chapter=The Creation and Reemergence of Qigong in China |editor-last2=Wank |editor-first2=David L. |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Despeux">{{Cite book |last=Despeux |first=C. |title=En suivant la Voie Royale: Mélanges en homage à Léon Vandermeersch |publisher=École Française d'Extrême-Orient |year=1997 |editor-last=J. Gernet |pages=267–281 |chapter=Le qigong, une expression de la modernité Chinoise |editor-last2=M. Kalinowski}}</ref><ref name="Nancy">{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Nancy N. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780231128056 |title=Breathing Spaces: Qigong, Psychiatry, and Healing in China |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-231-12804-9}}</ref> During the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1963) and the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976), qigong, along with other traditional Chinese medicine, was under tight control with limited access among the general public, but was encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers and spread to universities and hospitals. After the Cultural Revolution, qigong, along with [[tai chi]], was popularized as daily morning exercise practiced en masse throughout China. |
Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the mainland Chinese government tried to integrate disparate qigong approaches into one coherent system, with the intention of establishing a firm scientific basis for qigong practice. In 1949, Liu Guizhen established the name "qigong" to refer to the system of life-preserving practices that he and his associates developed, based on ''daoyin'' and other philosophical traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Voigt |first=John |date=Autumn 2013 |title=The Man Who Invented "Qigong" |url=http://www.qigonginstitute.org/html/papers/The%20Man%20Who%20Invented%20Qigong-1.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health & Fitness |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=28–33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019043412/http://www.qigonginstitute.org/html/papers/The%20Man%20Who%20Invented%20Qigong-1.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern or scientific interpretation of qigong.<ref name="Otehode">{{Cite book |last=Otehode |first=Utiraruto |url=https://archive.org/details/makingreligionma00ashi |title=Making religion, making the state: the politics of religion in modern China |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8047-5842-0 |editor-last=Ashiwa |editor-first=Yoshiko |location=Stanford, Calif. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingreligionma00ashi/page/n251 241]–265 |chapter=The Creation and Reemergence of Qigong in China |editor-last2=Wank |editor-first2=David L. |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Despeux">{{Cite book |last=Despeux |first=C. |title=En suivant la Voie Royale: Mélanges en homage à Léon Vandermeersch |publisher=École Française d'Extrême-Orient |year=1997 |editor-last=J. Gernet |pages=267–281 |chapter=Le qigong, une expression de la modernité Chinoise |editor-last2=M. Kalinowski}}</ref><ref name="Nancy">{{Cite book |last=Chen |first=Nancy N. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780231128056 |title=Breathing Spaces: Qigong, Psychiatry, and Healing in China |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-231-12804-9}}</ref> During the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1963) and the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976), qigong, along with other traditional Chinese medicine, was under tight control with limited access among the general public, but was encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers and spread to universities and hospitals. After the Cultural Revolution, qigong, along with [[tai chi]], was popularized as daily morning exercise practiced en masse throughout China. |
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Popularity of qigong grew rapidly through the 1990s, during Chairman [[Deng Xiaoping|Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Jiang Zemin|Jiang Zemin]] eras after [[Mao Zedong|Mao Zedong's]] death in 1976, with estimates of between 60 and 200 million practitioners throughout China. In 1985, the state-run China Qigong Science and Research Society was established to regulate the nation's qigong denominations and activities of Qigong Masters.<ref name="Palmer" />{{rp|59}}<ref name="Ownby" />{{rp|42,44}} |
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⚫ | Since the 1999 crackdown, qigong research and practice have only been officially supported in the context of health and traditional Chinese medicine. The Chinese Health Qigong Association, established in 2000, strictly regulates public qigong practice, with limitation of public gatherings, requirement of state approved training and certification of instructors, and restriction of practice to state-approved forms.<ref name="Karchmer">{{Cite book |last=Karchmer |first=Eric |url=https://archive.org/details/chinaoffcenterma00blum |title=China off center: mapping the margins of the middle kingdom |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8248-2577-5 |editor-last=Blum |editor-first=Susan Debra |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinaoffcenterma00blum/page/n334 311]–22 |chapter=Magic, Science and Qigong in Contemporary China |editor-last2=Jensen |editor-first2=Lionel M |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scheid |first=Volker |title=Chinese medicine in contemporary China: plurality and synthesis |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8223-2872-8 |location=Durham, NC}}</ref> |
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With the backing of prominent figures including several senior ranking party officials and most notably the atomic scientist [[Qian Xuesen]],<ref name="Ownby" />{{rp|63-64}} research into the paranormal aspects of Qigong gained traction within the Chinese scientific community during the 1980s.<ref name="Palmer" />{{rp|67-68}} Qian advocated for the creation of "[[Somatics|somatic]] science" (人体科学, renti kexue) which would address supernatural powers in its research of latent human body potentials that can be cultivated via Qigong practice.<ref name="Palmer" />{{rp|65,107}} |
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Through the forces of migration of the Chinese diaspora, tourism in China, and globalization, the practice of qigong spread from the Chinese community to the world. Today, millions of people around the world practice qigong and believe in the benefits of qigong to varying degrees. Similar to its historical origin, those interested in qigong come from diverse backgrounds and practice it for different reasons, including for recreation, exercise, relaxation, preventive medicine, self-healing, alternative medicine, self-cultivation, meditation, spirituality, and martial arts training. |
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⚫ | Along with popularity and state sanction came controversy and problems: claims of extraordinary abilities bordering on the supernatural, pseudoscience explanations to build credibility,<ref name="pseudoscience1">{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Zixin |url=https://archive.org/details/qigongchinesemed00zixi |title=Qigong: Chinese medicine or pseudoscience |publisher=Prometheus Books |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-57392-232-6 |location=Amherst, NY}}</ref> a mental condition labeled [[qigong deviation]],<ref name="Nancy" /> formation of cults, and exaggeration of claims by masters for personal benefit.<ref name="Palmer" /><ref name="Wanjek">{{Cite book |last=Wanjek |first=Christopher |url=https://archive.org/details/badmedicinemisco0000wanj |title=Bad medicine: misconceptions and misuses revealed, from distance healing to vitamin O |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-471-43499-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/badmedicinemisco0000wanj/page/182 182–187] |url-access=registration}}</ref> |
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=== Control and crackdown === |
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In 1999, in response to widespread revival of old traditions of spirituality, morality, and mysticism, and perceived challenges to State control, the Chinese government took measures to enforce control of public qigong practice, including shutting down qigong clinics and hospitals, and banning groups such as [[Zhong Gong]] and [[Falun Gong]].<ref name="Ownby" />{{rp|161–174}}<ref name="Penny">{{Cite book |last=Penny |first=Benjamin |title=Modernisation of the Chinese Past |publisher=Wild Peony |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86758-658-9 |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=M. |location=Sydney |pages=166–179 |chapter=Qigong, Daoism and Science: some contexts for the qigong boom |editor-last2=Syrokomla-Stefanowska |editor-first2=A.D.}}</ref> |
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⚫ | Since the 1999 crackdown, qigong research and practice have only been officially supported in the context of health and traditional Chinese medicine. The Chinese Health Qigong Association, established in 2000, strictly regulates public qigong practice, with limitation of public gatherings, requirement of state approved training and certification of instructors, and restriction of practice to state-approved forms.<ref name="Karchmer">{{Cite book |last=Karchmer |first=Eric |url=https://archive.org/details/chinaoffcenterma00blum |title=China off center: mapping the margins of the middle kingdom |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8248-2577-5 |editor-last=Blum |editor-first=Susan Debra |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinaoffcenterma00blum/page/n334 311]–22 |chapter=Magic, Science and Qigong in Contemporary China |editor-last2=Jensen |editor-first2=Lionel M |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scheid |first=Volker |title=Chinese medicine in contemporary China: plurality and synthesis |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8223-2872-8 |location=Durham, NC}}</ref> |
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==Overview== |
==Overview== |
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2) external qigong, which involves treatment by a therapist who directs or transmits ''qi''.<ref name=Micozzi2010/>{{rp|21777–21781}} |
2) external qigong, which involves treatment by a therapist who directs or transmits ''qi''.<ref name=Micozzi2010/>{{rp|21777–21781}} |
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As moving meditation, qigong practice typically coordinates slow stylized movement, deep diaphragmatic breathing, and calm mental focus, with visualization of guiding ''qi'' through the body. While implementation details vary, generally qigong forms can be characterized as a mix of four types of practice: dynamic, static, meditative, and activities requiring external aids. |
As moving meditation, qigong practice typically coordinates slow stylized movement, deep [[diaphragmatic breathing]], and calm mental focus, with visualization of guiding ''qi'' through the body. While implementation details vary, generally qigong forms can be characterized as a mix of four types of practice: dynamic, static, meditative, and activities requiring external aids. |
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* Dynamic practice |
* Dynamic practice |
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===Forms=== |
===Forms=== |
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There are numerous qigong forms. 75 ancient forms that can be found in ancient literature and also 56 common or contemporary forms have been described in a qigong compendium.<ref name="MaJiRen1992">{{Cite book |last=Ma Ji Ren {{lang|zh|馬濟人}} |publisher=Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers {{lang|zh|上海科学枝术出版社}} |year=1992 |isbn=978-7-5323-2720-1 |pages=466 |script-title=zh:實用中醫氣功學 |trans-title=Practical Qigong for Traditional Chinese Medicine}}</ref>{{rp|203–433}} The list is by no means exhaustive. Many contemporary forms were developed by people who had recovered from their illness after qigong practice. |
There are numerous qigong forms. 75 ancient forms that can be found in ancient literature and also 56 common or contemporary forms have been described in a qigong compendium.<ref name="MaJiRen1992">{{Cite book |last=Ma Ji Ren {{lang|zh|馬濟人}} |publisher=Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers {{lang|zh|上海科学枝术出版社}} |year=1992 |isbn=978-7-5323-2720-1 |pages=466 |script-title=zh:實用中醫氣功學 |trans-title=Practical Qigong for Traditional Chinese Medicine}}</ref>{{rp|203–433}} The list is by no means exhaustive. Many contemporary forms were developed by people who had recovered from their illness after qigong practice. |
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Most of the qigong forms come under the following categories:{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} |
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# Medical qigong |
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# Martial qigong |
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# Spiritual qigong |
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# Intellectual qigong |
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# Life nourishing qigong |
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===Techniques=== |
===Techniques=== |
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==Traditional and classical theory== |
==Traditional and classical theory== |
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[[File:BRASILRIO4.jpg|thumb|right|Qigong practitioners in [[Brazil]]]] |
[[File:BRASILRIO4.jpg|thumb|right|Qigong practitioners in [[Brazil]]]] |
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Over time, five distinct traditions or schools of qigong developed in China, each with its own theories and characteristics: Chinese [[medical qigong]], Daoist qigong, Buddhist qigong, Confucian qigong, and "martial" qigong.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|30–80}} All of these qigong traditions include practices intended to cultivate and balance ''qi''.<ref name="YJM2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frantzis |first=Bruce Kumar |url=https://archive.org/details/openingenergygat00fran |title=Opening the Energy Gates of Your Body (The Tao of Energy Enhancement) |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55643-164-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Liu |first=JeeLoo |title=An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy: From Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism |date=2006-05-05 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-2949-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Chenyang |url=https://archive.org/details/taoencounterswes0000lich |title=The Tao encounters the West: explorations in comparative philosophy |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7914-4135-0 |location=Albany |url-access=registration}}</ref> |
Over time, five distinct traditions or schools of qigong developed in China, each with its own theories and characteristics: Chinese [[medical qigong]], Daoist qigong, Buddhist qigong, Confucian qigong, and "martial" qigong.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|30–80}} All of these qigong traditions include practices intended to cultivate and balance ''qi''.<ref name="YJM2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Frantzis |first=Bruce Kumar |url=https://archive.org/details/openingenergygat00fran |title=Opening the Energy Gates of Your Body (The Tao of Energy Enhancement) |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55643-164-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Liu |first=JeeLoo |title=An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy: From Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism |date=2006-05-05 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-2949-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Chenyang |url=https://archive.org/details/taoencounterswes0000lich |title=The Tao encounters the West: explorations in comparative philosophy |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7914-4135-0 |location=Albany |url-access=registration}}</ref> |
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===Buddhism=== |
===Buddhism=== |
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Meditative practices are part of a spiritual path that leads to [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] or [[Buddhahood]]. They are considered by some as Buddhist qigong. <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bucknell |first1=Roderick S. |title=The twilight language: explorations in Buddhist meditation and symbolism |last2=Stuart-Fox |first2=Martin |publisher=Curzon Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7007-0234-3 |location=London}}</ref> |
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===Confucianism=== |
===Confucianism=== |
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===Contemporary Chinese medical qigong=== |
===Contemporary Chinese medical qigong=== |
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Qigong has been recognized as a "standard medical technique" in China since 1989, and is sometimes included in the medical curriculum of major universities in China.<ref name="Wengell2008">{{Cite book |last1=Douglas Wengell |url=https://archive.org/details/educationaloppor0000weng |title=Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine |last2=Nathen Gabriel |publisher=The Hunter Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-9776552-4-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/educationaloppor0000weng/page/34 34] |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|34}} The 2013 English translation of the official Chinese medical gigong textbook used in China<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|iv,385}} defines CMQ as "the skill of body-mind exercise that integrates body, breath, and mind adjustments into one" and emphasizes that qigong is based on "adjustment" (''tiao'' {{lang|zh|调 }}, also translated as "regulation", "tuning", or "alignment") of body, breath, and mind.<ref name="Liu2013CMQ">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Medical Qigong, Third Edition |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84819-096-2 |editor-last=Liu |editor-first=Tian Jun |editor-last2=Qiang |editor-first2=Xiao Mei}}</ref>{{rp|16–18}} As such, qigong is viewed by practitioners as being more than common physical exercise, because qigong combines postural, breathing, and mental training in one to produce a particular psychophysiological state of being.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|15}} While CMQ is still based on traditional and classical theory, modern practitioners also emphasize the importance of a strong scientific basis.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|81–89}} According to the 2013 CMQ textbook, physiological effects of qigong are numerous, and include improvement of respiratory and cardiovascular function, and possibly neurophysiological function.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|89–102}} |
Qigong has been recognized as a "standard medical technique" in China since 1989, and is sometimes included in the medical curriculum of major universities in China.<ref name="Wengell2008">{{Cite book |last1=Douglas Wengell |url=https://archive.org/details/educationaloppor0000weng |title=Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine |last2=Nathen Gabriel |publisher=The Hunter Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-9776552-4-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/educationaloppor0000weng/page/34 34] |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|34}} The 2013 English translation of the official Chinese medical gigong textbook used in China<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|iv,385}} defines CMQ as "the skill of body-mind exercise that integrates body, breath, and mind adjustments into one" and emphasizes that qigong is based on "adjustment" (''tiao'' {{lang|zh|调 }}, also translated as "regulation", "tuning", or "alignment") of body, breath, and mind.<ref name="Liu2013CMQ">{{Cite book |title=Chinese Medical Qigong, Third Edition |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84819-096-2 |editor-last=Liu |editor-first=Tian Jun |editor-last2=Qiang |editor-first2=Xiao Mei}}</ref>{{rp|16–18}} As such, qigong is viewed by practitioners as being more than common physical exercise, because qigong combines postural, breathing, and mental training in one to produce a particular psychophysiological state of being.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|15}} While CMQ is still based on traditional and classical theory, modern practitioners also emphasize the importance of a strong scientific basis.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|81–89}} According to the 2013 CMQ textbook, physiological effects of qigong are numerous, and include improvement of respiratory and cardiovascular function, and possibly neurophysiological function.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|89–102}} |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | Especially since the 1990s, conventional or mainstream Western medicine often strives to heed the model of [[evidence-based medicine]], EBM, which demotes medical theory, clinical experience, and physiological data to prioritize the results of controlled, and especially randomized, clinical trials of the treatment itself.<ref name="Sackett96">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sackett DL, Rosenberg WM, Gray JA, Haynes RB, Richardson WS |date=January 1996 |title=Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't |journal=BMJ |volume=312 |issue=7023 |pages=71–2 |doi=10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71 |pmc=2349778 |pmid=8555924}}</ref><ref>*Tenny S & Varacallo M, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470182 "Evidence based medicine (EBM)"] @ NIH.gov (Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2020). |
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⚫ |
*Guyatt GH, Haynes RB, Jaeschke RZ, Cook DJ, Green L, et al., [https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gim/_pdf/JAMA/25-Applying_to_Patient_Care.pdf "XXV, Evidence-based medicine: Principles for applying the Users' Guides to patient care"], {{webarchive |
||
⚫ | *Liberati A & Vineis P, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15082801 "Introduction to the symposium: What evidence based medicine is and what it is not"], ''J Med Ethics'', 2004 Apr;'''30'''(2):120–121.</ref> Although some clinical trials support qigong's effectiveness in treating conditions diagnosed in Western medicine, the quality of these studies is mostly low and, overall, their results are mixed.<ref name="Lee2011" /> |
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===Integrative, complementary, and alternative medicine=== |
===Integrative, complementary, and alternative medicine=== |
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[[Integrative medicine]] (IM) refers to "the blending of conventional and complementary medicines and therapies with the aim of using the most appropriate of either or both modalities to care for the patient as a whole",<ref name="Kotsirilos2011">{{Cite book |last1=Kotsirilos, Vicki |title=A Guide to Evidence-based Integrative and Complementary Medicine |last2=Luis Vitetta |last3=Avni Sali |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences APAC. Kindle Edition. |year=2011}}</ref>{{rp|455–456}} whereas [[Complementary Medicine|complementary]] is using a non-mainstream approach together with conventional medicine, while [[Alternative medicine|alternative]] is using a non-mainstream approach in place of conventional medicine.<ref name="NIHNCCAM2013">{{Cite web |date=November 8, 2018 |title=Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/integrative-health |access-date=January 6, 2019 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref> Qigong is used by integrative medicine practitioners to complement conventional medical treatment, based on complementary and alternative medicine interpretations of the effectiveness and safety of qigong.<ref name="Micozzi2010">{{Cite book |last=Micozzi, Marc S. |title=Fundamentals of Complementary and Alternative Medicine |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences, Kindle Edition |year=2010}}</ref>{{rp|22278–22306}} |
[[Integrative medicine]] (IM) refers to "the blending of conventional and complementary medicines and therapies with the aim of using the most appropriate of either or both modalities to care for the patient as a whole",<ref name="Kotsirilos2011">{{Cite book |last1=Kotsirilos, Vicki |title=A Guide to Evidence-based Integrative and Complementary Medicine |last2=Luis Vitetta |last3=Avni Sali |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences APAC. Kindle Edition. |year=2011}}</ref>{{rp|455–456}} whereas [[Complementary Medicine|complementary]] is using a non-mainstream approach together with conventional medicine, while [[Alternative medicine|alternative]] is using a non-mainstream approach in place of conventional medicine.<ref name="NIHNCCAM2013">{{Cite web |date=November 8, 2018 |title=Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/integrative-health |access-date=January 6, 2019 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref> Qigong is used by integrative medicine practitioners to complement conventional medical treatment, based on complementary and alternative medicine interpretations of the effectiveness and safety of qigong.<ref name="Micozzi2010">{{Cite book |last=Micozzi, Marc S. |title=Fundamentals of Complementary and Alternative Medicine |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences, Kindle Edition |year=2010}}</ref>{{rp|22278–22306}} |
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===Research=== |
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Scientists interested in qigong have sought to describe or verify the effects of qigong, to explore mechanisms of effects, to form scientific theory with respect to qigong, and to identify appropriate research methodology for further study.<ref name=Liu2013CMQ/>{{rp|81–89}} Fundamentally, ''qi'' does not exist.<ref name="NCCAM">{{Cite web |date=2011-11-11 |title=Energy Medicine: An Overview |url=http://nccam.nih.gov/health/backgrounds/energymed.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081115162836/http://nccam.nih.gov/health/backgrounds/energymed.htm |archive-date=15 November 2008 |access-date=17 March 2014 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine}}</ref> In any case, some researches have reported effects on pathophysiological parameters of biomedical interest.<ref name=":0">Kevin Chen, Elizabeth R. Mackenzie & Master FaXiang Hou, "The benefits of qigong", in Elizabeth R. Mackenzie & Birgit Rakel, eds., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gms30rKjAZMC&q=qigong+medical Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Older Adults]'' (New York: Springer, 2006).</ref><ref name="Jahnke_et_al_2010" /> |
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== Practitioners, uses and cautions == |
== Practitioners, uses and cautions == |
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=== Recreation and popular use === |
=== Recreation and popular use === |
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People practice qigong for many different reasons, including for recreation, exercise and relaxation, [[preventive medicine]] and [[self-healing]], [[meditation]] and [[Higher self|self-cultivation]], and training for martial arts. Practitioners range from athletes to people with disabilities. Because it is low impact and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, qigong is accessible for people with disabilities, seniors, and people recovering from injuries.<ref name="Cohen" /> |
People practice qigong for many different reasons, including for recreation, exercise and relaxation, [[preventive medicine]] and [[self-healing]], [[meditation]] and [[Higher self|self-cultivation]], and training for martial arts. Practitioners range from athletes to people with disabilities. Because it is low impact and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, qigong is accessible for people with disabilities, seniors, and people recovering from injuries.<ref name="Cohen" /> |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-cultivation as part of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a means to still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and bliss.<ref name="LWW" /> Many practitioners find qigong, with its gentle focused movement, to be more accessible than seated meditation.<ref name="Garripoli" /> |
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⚫ | Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in terms of traditional Chinese philosophy: Daoist, Buddhist, and Confucian. |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | The practice of qigong is an important component in both [[Neijia|internal]] and [[external martial arts|external]] style [[Chinese martial arts]].<ref name="LWW" /> Focus on ''qi'' is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation of the internal style of martial arts (''neijia''). [[Tai chi]], ''[[xingyiquan]]'', and ''[[baguazhang]]'' are representative of the types of Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of ''qi'' as the foundation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Lu |title=The Combat Techniques of Tai Ji, Xing Yi, and Ba Gua : Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts |last2=Yun |first2=Zhang |publisher=Frog, Ltd./Blue Snake Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-58394-145-4}}</ref> Extraordinary feats of martial arts prowess, such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes ([[Iron Shirt]], {{lang|zh|鐵衫}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chia |first=Mantak |title=Iron Shirt Chi Kung |publisher=Destiny Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59477-104-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}} and the ability to break hard objects ([[Iron Palm]], {{lang|zh|鐵掌}}; alt. {{lang|zh|鐵絲掌}}, {{lang|zh|鐵沙掌}}, or {{lang|zh|鐵砂掌}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ying-Arng. |title=Iron Palm in 100 days |publisher=Wehman Bros. Inc. |year=1973}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chao |first=H.C. |title=Complete iron palm training for self defense |publisher=Unitrade Company |year=1981}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}} are abilities attributed to qigong training. |
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=== Tai chi and qigong === |
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⚫ | ''[[Tai chi]]'' is a widely practiced Chinese [[Neijia|internal]] [[Chinese martial arts|martial style]] based on the theory of ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]'', closely associated with qigong, and typically involving more complex choreographed movement coordinated with breath, done slowly for health and training, or quickly for self-defense. Many scholars consider tai chi to be a type of qigong, traced back to an origin in the seventeenth century. In modern practice, qigong typically focuses more on health and meditation rather than martial applications, and plays an important role in training for tai chi, in particular used to build strength, develop breath control, and increase vitality ("life energy").<ref name="yang_taiji" /><ref name="yeyoung_taichi_qigong">{{Cite web |last=YeYoung |first=Bing |title=Introduction to Taichi and Qigong |url=http://sactaichi.com/what-is-qi-gong |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201235840/http://sactaichi.com/what-is-qi-gong/ |archive-date=2014-02-01 |access-date=2014-04-25 |publisher=YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA}}</ref> |
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=== Therapeutic use === |
=== Therapeutic use === |
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Qigong has shown therapeutic benefits in various health conditions. Research suggests in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Qigong has been found to improve lung function, exercise capacity, and quality of life. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tong |first1=Hongxuan |last2=Liu |first2=Yihua |last3=Zhu |first3=Yutian |last4=Zhang |first4=Boli |last5=Hu |first5=Jingqing |year=2019 |title=The therapeutic effects of qigong in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the stable stage: a meta-analysis |journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=19 |issue=1|page=239 |doi=10.1186/s12906-019-2639-9 |doi-access=free |pmid=31484521 |pmc=6727520 }}</ref> Qigong exercise shows therapeutic efficacy in alleviating fibromyalgia symptoms including pain, sleep quality, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and fibromyalgia impact, as per a pilot randomized clinical trial.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sarmento |first1=Caio V.M. |last2=Moon |first2=Sanghee |last3=Pfeifer |first3=Taylor |last4=Smirnova |first4=Irina V. |last5=Colgrove |first5=Yvonne |last6=Lai |first6=Sue Min |last7=Liu |first7=Wen |year=2020 |title=The therapeutic efficacy of Qigong exercise on the main symptoms of fibromyalgia: a pilot randomized clinical trial |journal=Integrative Medicine Research |volume=9 |issue=4|doi=10.1016/j.imr.2020.100416 |pmid=32455108 |pmc=7235941 }}</ref> Moreover, studies have indicated Qigong-based exercises may be effective for alleviating depression symptoms in individuals with major depressive disorder and future well-designed, randomized controlled trials with large sample sizes are needed to confirm these findings. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Lijuan |last2=Kong |first2=Zhaowei |last3=Zhang |first3=Yanjie |year=2019 |title=Qigong-Based Therapy for Treating Adults with Major Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=826|doi=10.3390/ijerph16050826 |doi-access=free |pmid=30866431 |pmc=6427394 }}</ref> |
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There is insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of using qigong as a therapy for any medical condition.<ref name=nccih16/><ref name=Lee2011/> |
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=== Safety and cost === |
=== Safety and cost === |
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Qigong is generally viewed as safe.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-01-06 |title=Tai Chi and Qi Gong for Health and Well-Being |url=http://nccam.nih.gov/video/taichiDVD |access-date=5 March 2014 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine}}</ref> No adverse effects have been observed in clinical trials, such that qigong is considered safe for use across diverse populations. Cost for self-care is minimal, and cost efficiencies are high for group delivered care.<ref name=Jahnke_et_al_2010/> Typically the cautions associated with qigong are the same as those associated with any physical activity, including risk of muscle strains or sprains, advisability of stretching to prevent injury, general safety for use alongside conventional medical treatments, and consulting with a physician when combining with conventional treatment.<ref name=nccih16/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Web MD: Are tai chi and qi gong safe? |url=http://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/tc/tai-chi-and-qi-gong-topic-overview |access-date=14 March 2014}}</ref> |
Qigong is generally viewed as safe.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-01-06 |title=Tai Chi and Qi Gong for Health and Well-Being |url=http://nccam.nih.gov/video/taichiDVD |access-date=5 March 2014 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine}}</ref> No adverse effects have been observed in clinical trials, such that qigong is considered safe for use across diverse populations. Cost for self-care is minimal, and cost efficiencies are high for group delivered care.<ref name="Jahnke_et_al_2010" /> Typically the cautions associated with qigong are the same as those associated with any physical activity, including risk of muscle strains or sprains, advisability of stretching to prevent injury, general safety for use alongside conventional medical treatments, and consulting with a physician when combining with conventional treatment.<ref name="nccih16" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Web MD: Are tai chi and qi gong safe? |url=http://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/tc/tai-chi-and-qi-gong-topic-overview |access-date=14 March 2014}}</ref> |
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==Clinical research== |
==Clinical research== |
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=== Overview === |
=== Overview === |
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Although there is ongoing clinical research examining the potential health effects of qigong, there is little financial or medical incentive to support high-quality research, and still only a limited number of studies meet accepted medical and scientific standards of [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trials (RCTs)]].<ref name=nccih16/><ref name="Jahnke_et_al_2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Jahnke |first1=R. |last2=Larkey |first2=L. |last3=Rogers |first3=C. |last4=Etnier |first4=J |last5=Lin |first5=F. |year=2010 |title=A comprehensive review of health benefits of qigong and tai chi |journal=American Journal of Health Promotion |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=e1–e25 |doi=10.4278/ajhp.081013-LIT-248 |
Although there is ongoing clinical research examining the potential health effects of qigong, there is little financial or medical incentive to support high-quality research, and still only a limited number of studies meet accepted medical and scientific standards of [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trials (RCTs)]].<ref name="nccih16" /><ref name="Jahnke_et_al_2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Jahnke |first1=R. |last2=Larkey |first2=L. |last3=Rogers |first3=C. |last4=Etnier |first4=J |last5=Lin |first5=F. |year=2010 |title=A comprehensive review of health benefits of qigong and tai chi |journal=American Journal of Health Promotion |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=e1–e25 |doi=10.4278/ajhp.081013-LIT-248 |pmc=3085832 |pmid=20594090}}</ref> Clinical research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including bone density, [[Cardiopulmonary|cardiopulmonary effects]], physical function, falls and related risk factors, quality of life, immune function, inflammation,<ref name="Jahnke_et_al_2010" /> hypertension,<ref name="hartley" /> pain,<ref name="LeeIntPain2009" /> and cancer treatment.<ref name="nccih16" /><ref name="LeeCancer2010" /> |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ | Especially since the 1990s, conventional or mainstream Western medicine often strives to heed the model of [[evidence-based medicine]], EBM, which demotes medical theory, clinical experience, and physiological data to prioritize the results of controlled, and especially randomized, clinical trials of the treatment itself.<ref name="Sackett96">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sackett DL, Rosenberg WM, Gray JA, Haynes RB, Richardson WS |date=January 1996 |title=Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't |journal=BMJ |volume=312 |issue=7023 |pages=71–2 |doi=10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71 |pmc=2349778 |pmid=8555924}}</ref><ref>* Tenny S & Varacallo M, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470182 "Evidence based medicine (EBM)"] @ NIH.gov (Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2020). |
||
⚫ | * Guyatt GH, Haynes RB, Jaeschke RZ, Cook DJ, Green L, et al., [https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gim/_pdf/JAMA/25-Applying_to_Patient_Care.pdf "XXV, Evidence-based medicine: Principles for applying the Users' Guides to patient care"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221214319/https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/gim/_pdf/JAMA/25-Applying_to_Patient_Care.pdf|date=21 February 2016}}, ''Users' Guides to the Medical Literature'', in ''JAMA'', 2000;'''284'''(10):1290–96, especially pp 1292–1293. |
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⚫ | * Liberati A & Vineis P, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15082801 "Introduction to the symposium: What evidence based medicine is and what it is not"], ''J Med Ethics'', 2004 Apr;'''30'''(2):120–121.</ref> Although some clinical trials support qigong's effectiveness in treating conditions diagnosed in Western medicine, the quality of these studies is mostly low and, overall, their results are mixed.<ref name="Lee2011" /> |
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=== Systematic reviews === |
=== Systematic reviews === |
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Line 173: | Line 182: | ||
=== Challenges=== |
=== Challenges=== |
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Most existing clinical trials have small sample sizes and many have inadequate controls. Of particular concern is the impracticality of [[Blinded experiment|double blinding]] using appropriate sham treatments, and the difficulty of placebo control, such that benefits often cannot be distinguished from the [[placebo effect]].<ref name=Micozzi2010/>{{rp|22278–22306}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 2010 |title=Clinical trials and CAM |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/clinicaltrials.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221013008/https://nccih.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/clinicaltrials.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=27 October 2018 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref> Also of concern is the choice of which qigong form to use and how to standardize the treatment or amount with respect to the skill of the practitioner leading or administering treatment, the tradition of individualization of treatments, and the treatment length, intensity, and frequency.<ref name=Micozzi2010/>{{rp|6869–6920,22361–22370}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antonishen |first=Kevin |date=2015 |title=Exercise mode heterogeneity among reported studies of the qigong practice baduanjin. |journal=Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=278–283 |doi=10.1016/j.jbmt.2014.05.013 |pmid=25892384}}</ref> |
Most existing clinical trials have small sample sizes and many have inadequate controls. Of particular concern is the impracticality of [[Blinded experiment|double blinding]] using appropriate sham treatments, and the difficulty of placebo control, such that benefits often cannot be distinguished from the [[placebo effect]].<ref name=Micozzi2010/>{{rp|22278–22306}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 2010 |title=Clinical trials and CAM |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/clinicaltrials.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221013008/https://nccih.nih.gov/sites/nccam.nih.gov/files/clinicaltrials.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=27 October 2018 |publisher=National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, US National Institutes of Health}}</ref> Also of concern is the choice of which qigong form to use and how to standardize the treatment or amount with respect to the skill of the practitioner leading or administering treatment, the tradition of individualization of treatments, and the treatment length, intensity, and frequency.<ref name=Micozzi2010/>{{rp|6869–6920,22361–22370}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antonishen |first=Kevin |date=2015 |title=Exercise mode heterogeneity among reported studies of the qigong practice baduanjin. |journal=Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=278–283 |doi=10.1016/j.jbmt.2014.05.013 |pmid=25892384}}</ref> |
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⚫ | |||
{{main|Meditation}} |
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⚫ | Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-cultivation as part of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a means to still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and bliss.<ref name="LWW" /> Many practitioners find qigong, with its gentle focused movement, to be more accessible than seated meditation.<ref name="Garripoli" /> |
||
⚫ | Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in terms of traditional Chinese philosophy: Daoist, Buddhist, and Confucian. |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | The practice of qigong is an important component in both [[Neijia|internal]] and [[external martial arts|external]] style [[Chinese martial arts]].<ref name="LWW" /> Focus on ''qi'' is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation of the internal style of martial arts (''neijia''). [[Tai chi]], ''[[xingyiquan]]'', and ''[[baguazhang]]'' are representative of the types of Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of ''qi'' as the foundation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Lu |title=The Combat Techniques of Tai Ji, Xing Yi, and Ba Gua : Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts |last2=Yun |first2=Zhang |publisher=Frog, Ltd./Blue Snake Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-58394-145-4}}</ref> Extraordinary feats of martial arts prowess, such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes ([[Iron Shirt]], {{lang|zh|鐵衫}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chia |first=Mantak |title=Iron Shirt Chi Kung |publisher=Destiny Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59477-104-0}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}} and the ability to break hard objects ([[Iron Palm]], {{lang|zh|鐵掌}}; alt. {{lang|zh|鐵絲掌}}, {{lang|zh|鐵沙掌}}, or {{lang|zh|鐵砂掌}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ying-Arng. |title=Iron Palm in 100 days |publisher=Wehman Bros. Inc. |year=1973}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chao |first=H.C. |title=Complete iron palm training for self defense |publisher=Unitrade Company |year=1981}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}} are abilities attributed to qigong training. |
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⚫ | |||
⚫ |
''[[Tai chi]]'' is a widely practiced Chinese [[Neijia|internal]] [[Chinese martial arts|martial style]] based on the theory of ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]'', closely associated with qigong, and typically involving more complex choreographed movement coordinated with breath, done slowly for health and training, or quickly for self-defense. Many scholars consider tai chi to be a type of qigong, traced back to an origin in the seventeenth century. In modern practice, qigong typically focuses more on health and meditation rather than martial applications, and plays an important role in training for tai chi, in particular used to build strength, develop breath control, and increase vitality ("life energy").<ref name |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Wushu (sport)|Wushu]] |
* [[Wushu (sport)|Wushu]] |
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* [[Chinese martial arts|Kung fu]] |
* [[Chinese martial arts|Kung fu]] |
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* ''[[Jing (TCM)|Jing]]'', ''[[qi]]'' |
* ''[[Jing (TCM)|Jing]]'', ''[[qi]]'' and ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' |
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* ''[[Neidan]]'' |
* ''[[Neidan]]'' |
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* ''[[Neigong]]'' |
* ''[[Neigong]]'' |
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Meister Lam in Jiuzhaiguo, Sichuan
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Simplified Chinese | 气功 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Vietnamese | khí công | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chữ Hán | 氣功 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Hangul | 기공 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanja | 氣功 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Kanji | 気功 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kana | きこう | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Qigong (/ˈtʃiːˈɡɒŋ/),[1][a] is a system of coordinated body-posture and movement, breathing, and meditation[2] said to be useful for the purposes of health, spirituality, and martial arts training.[3] With roots in Chinese medicine, philosophy, and martial arts, qigong is traditionally viewed by the Chinese and throughout Asia as a practice to cultivate and balance the mythical life-force qi.[4]
Qigong practice typically involves moving meditation, coordinating slow-flowing movement, deep rhythmic breathing, and a calm meditative state of mind. People practice qigong throughout China and worldwide for recreation, exercise, relaxation, preventive medicine, self-healing, alternative medicine, meditation, self-cultivation, and training for martial arts.[2]
Qigong (Pinyin), ch'i kung (Wade-Giles), and chi gung (Yale) are romanizations of two Chinese words『qì』and『gōng』(功). Qi primarily means air, gas or breath but is often translated as a metaphysical concept of 'vital energy',[4] referring to a supposed energy circulating through the body; though a more general definition is universal energy, including heat, light, and electromagnetic energy;[5] and definitions often involve breath, air, gas, or the relationship between matter, energy, and spirit.[6] Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Gong (orkung) is often translated as cultivation or work, and definitions include practice, skill, mastery, merit, achievement, service, result, or accomplishment, and is often used to mean gongfu (kung fu) in the traditional sense of achievement through great effort.[7] The two words are combined to describe systems to cultivate and balance life energy, especially for health and wellbeing.[4]
The term qigong as currently used was promoted in the late 1940s through the 1950s to refer to a broad range of Chinese self-cultivation exercises, and to emphasize health and scientific approaches, while de-emphasizing spiritual practices, mysticism, and elite lineages.[8][9][10]
With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating back more than 2,000 years, a wide variety of qigong forms have developed within different segments of Chinese society:[11] in traditional Chinese medicine for preventive and curative functions;[12]inConfucianism to promote longevity and improve moral character;[4]inTaoism and Buddhism as part of meditative practice;[13] and in Chinese martial arts to enhance self defending abilities.[9][14] Contemporary qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate traditions, in particular the Taoist meditative practice of "internal alchemy" (neidan), the ancient meditative practices of "circulating qi" (xingqi) and "standing meditation" (zhan zhuang), and the slow gymnastic breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (daoyin). Traditionally, qigong was taught by master to students through training and oral transmission, with an emphasis on meditative practice by scholars and gymnastic or dynamic practice by the working masses.[15]
Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the mainland Chinese government tried to integrate disparate qigong approaches into one coherent system, with the intention of establishing a firm scientific basis for qigong practice. In 1949, Liu Guizhen established the name "qigong" to refer to the system of life-preserving practices that he and his associates developed, based on daoyin and other philosophical traditions.[16] This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern or scientific interpretation of qigong.[17][18][19] During the Great Leap Forward (1958–1963) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), qigong, along with other traditional Chinese medicine, was under tight control with limited access among the general public, but was encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers and spread to universities and hospitals. After the Cultural Revolution, qigong, along with tai chi, was popularized as daily morning exercise practiced en masse throughout China.
Popularity of qigong grew rapidly through the 1990s, during Chairman Deng Xiaoping and Jiang Zemin eras after Mao Zedong's death in 1976, with estimates of between 60 and 200 million practitioners throughout China. In 1985, the state-run China Qigong Science and Research Society was established to regulate the nation's qigong denominations and activities of Qigong Masters.[8]: 59 [10]: 42, 44
With the backing of prominent figures including several senior ranking party officials and most notably the atomic scientist Qian Xuesen,[10]: 63–64 research into the paranormal aspects of Qigong gained traction within the Chinese scientific community during the 1980s.[8]: 67–68 Qian advocated for the creation of "somatic science" (人体科学, renti kexue) which would address supernatural powers in its research of latent human body potentials that can be cultivated via Qigong practice.[8]: 65, 107
Along with popularity and state sanction came controversy and problems: claims of extraordinary abilities bordering on the supernatural, pseudoscience explanations to build credibility,[20] a mental condition labeled qigong deviation,[19] formation of cults, and exaggeration of claims by masters for personal benefit.[8][21]
In 1999, in response to widespread revival of old traditions of spirituality, morality, and mysticism, and perceived challenges to State control, the Chinese government took measures to enforce control of public qigong practice, including shutting down qigong clinics and hospitals, and banning groups such as Zhong Gong and Falun Gong.[10]: 161–174 [22] Since the 1999 crackdown, qigong research and practice have only been officially supported in the context of health and traditional Chinese medicine. The Chinese Health Qigong Association, established in 2000, strictly regulates public qigong practice, with limitation of public gatherings, requirement of state approved training and certification of instructors, and restriction of practice to state-approved forms.[23][24]
Qigong comprises a diverse set of practices that coordinate body (調身), breath (調息), and mind (調心) based on Chinese philosophy.[25][26] Practices include moving and still meditation, massage, chanting, sound meditation, and non-contact treatments, performed in a broad array of body postures. Qigong is commonly classified into two foundational categories: 1) dynamic or active qigong (dong gong), with slow flowing movement; and 2) meditative or passive qigong (jing gong), with still positions and inner movement of the breath.[27]: 21770–21772 From a therapeutic perspective, qigong can be classified into two systems: 1) internal qigong, which focuses on self-care and self-cultivation, and; 2) external qigong, which involves treatment by a therapist who directs or transmits qi.[27]: 21777–21781
As moving meditation, qigong practice typically coordinates slow stylized movement, deep diaphragmatic breathing, and calm mental focus, with visualization of guiding qi through the body. While implementation details vary, generally qigong forms can be characterized as a mix of four types of practice: dynamic, static, meditative, and activities requiring external aids.
There are numerous qigong forms. 75 ancient forms that can be found in ancient literature and also 56 common or contemporary forms have been described in a qigong compendium.[40]: 203–433 The list is by no means exhaustive. Many contemporary forms were developed by people who had recovered from their illness after qigong practice.
Whether viewed from the perspective of exercise, health, philosophy, or martial arts training, several main principles emerge concerning the practice of qigong:[4][33][41][42]
Additional principles:
Advanced goals:
The most advanced practice is generally considered to be with little or no motion.
Over time, five distinct traditions or schools of qigong developed in China, each with its own theories and characteristics: Chinese medical qigong, Daoist qigong, Buddhist qigong, Confucian qigong, and "martial" qigong.[43]: 30–80 All of these qigong traditions include practices intended to cultivate and balance qi.[11][44][45][46]
The theories of ancient Chinese qigong include the yin and yang and Five Elements Theory, the Three Treasures Theory, Zang-Xiang Theory, Meridians, and the qi-Blood Theory, which have been synthesized as part of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).[43]: 45–57 TCM aims to identify and correct underlying disharmony, addressing deficiency and excess by utilizing the complementary and opposing forces of yin and yang, to create a balanced flow of qi. Qi is believed to be cultivated and stored in three main dantian energy centers and to travel through the body along twelve main meridians, with numerous smaller branches and tributaries. The main meridians correspond to twelve main organs. Qi is balanced in terms of yin and yang in the context of the traditional system of Five Elements.[11][12] It is understood that illness and disease emerge when qi becomes diminished, unbalanced, or stagnant. Health is believed to be returned and maintained by rebuilding qi, eliminating qi blockages, and correcting qi imbalances. These TCM concepts do not translate readily to modern science and medicine but are adopted by TCM practitioners throughout East Asia in treating patients.[47]
In Daoism, various practices now known as Daoist qigong are claimed to provide a way to achieve longevity and spiritual realization,[48] as well as a closer connection with the natural world.[49] For instance, the Ming dynasty compendium Chifeng sui, written by a Daoist ascetic, lists various qigong-based "longevity methods".
Meditative practices are part of a spiritual path that leads to enlightenmentorBuddhahood. They are considered by some as Buddhist qigong. [50]
In Confucianism practices now known as Confucian qigong provide a means to become a Junzi (君子) through awareness of morality.[51][52]
In contemporary China, the emphasis of qigong practice has shifted away from traditional philosophy, spiritual attainment, and folklore, and increasingly to health benefits, traditional medicine and martial arts applications, and a scientific perspective.[8][10] Qigong is now practiced by millions worldwide, primarily for its health benefits, though many practitioners have also adopted traditional philosophical, medical, or martial arts perspectives, and even use the long history of qigong as evidence of its effectiveness.[11][41]
Qigong has been recognized as a "standard medical technique" in China since 1989, and is sometimes included in the medical curriculum of major universities in China.[53]: 34 The 2013 English translation of the official Chinese medical gigong textbook used in China[43]: iv, 385 defines CMQ as "the skill of body-mind exercise that integrates body, breath, and mind adjustments into one" and emphasizes that qigong is based on "adjustment" (tiao 调, also translated as "regulation", "tuning", or "alignment") of body, breath, and mind.[43]: 16–18 As such, qigong is viewed by practitioners as being more than common physical exercise, because qigong combines postural, breathing, and mental training in one to produce a particular psychophysiological state of being.[43]: 15 While CMQ is still based on traditional and classical theory, modern practitioners also emphasize the importance of a strong scientific basis.[43]: 81–89 According to the 2013 CMQ textbook, physiological effects of qigong are numerous, and include improvement of respiratory and cardiovascular function, and possibly neurophysiological function.[43]: 89–102
Integrative medicine (IM) refers to "the blending of conventional and complementary medicines and therapies with the aim of using the most appropriate of either or both modalities to care for the patient as a whole",[54]: 455–456 whereas complementary is using a non-mainstream approach together with conventional medicine, while alternative is using a non-mainstream approach in place of conventional medicine.[55] Qigong is used by integrative medicine practitioners to complement conventional medical treatment, based on complementary and alternative medicine interpretations of the effectiveness and safety of qigong.[27]: 22278–22306
People practice qigong for many different reasons, including for recreation, exercise and relaxation, preventive medicine and self-healing, meditation and self-cultivation, and training for martial arts. Practitioners range from athletes to people with disabilities. Because it is low impact and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, qigong is accessible for people with disabilities, seniors, and people recovering from injuries.[4]
Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-cultivation as part of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a means to still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and bliss.[13] Many practitioners find qigong, with its gentle focused movement, to be more accessible than seated meditation.[41]
Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in terms of traditional Chinese philosophy: Daoist, Buddhist, and Confucian.
The practice of qigong is an important component in both internal and external style Chinese martial arts.[13] Focus on qi is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation of the internal style of martial arts (neijia). Tai chi, xingyiquan, and baguazhang are representative of the types of Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of qi as the foundation.[56] Extraordinary feats of martial arts prowess, such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes (Iron Shirt, 鐵衫)[57][page needed] and the ability to break hard objects (Iron Palm, 鐵掌; alt. 鐵絲掌, 鐵沙掌, or 鐵砂掌)[58][page needed][59][page needed] are abilities attributed to qigong training.
Tai chi is a widely practiced Chinese internal martial style based on the theory of taiji, closely associated with qigong, and typically involving more complex choreographed movement coordinated with breath, done slowly for health and training, or quickly for self-defense. Many scholars consider tai chi to be a type of qigong, traced back to an origin in the seventeenth century. In modern practice, qigong typically focuses more on health and meditation rather than martial applications, and plays an important role in training for tai chi, in particular used to build strength, develop breath control, and increase vitality ("life energy").[28][60]
Qigong has shown therapeutic benefits in various health conditions. Research suggests in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Qigong has been found to improve lung function, exercise capacity, and quality of life. [61] Qigong exercise shows therapeutic efficacy in alleviating fibromyalgia symptoms including pain, sleep quality, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and fibromyalgia impact, as per a pilot randomized clinical trial.[62] Moreover, studies have indicated Qigong-based exercises may be effective for alleviating depression symptoms in individuals with major depressive disorder and future well-designed, randomized controlled trials with large sample sizes are needed to confirm these findings. [63]
Qigong is generally viewed as safe.[64] No adverse effects have been observed in clinical trials, such that qigong is considered safe for use across diverse populations. Cost for self-care is minimal, and cost efficiencies are high for group delivered care.[65] Typically the cautions associated with qigong are the same as those associated with any physical activity, including risk of muscle strains or sprains, advisability of stretching to prevent injury, general safety for use alongside conventional medical treatments, and consulting with a physician when combining with conventional treatment.[2][66]
Although there is ongoing clinical research examining the potential health effects of qigong, there is little financial or medical incentive to support high-quality research, and still only a limited number of studies meet accepted medical and scientific standards of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).[2][65] Clinical research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including bone density, cardiopulmonary effects, physical function, falls and related risk factors, quality of life, immune function, inflammation,[65] hypertension,[67] pain,[68] and cancer treatment.[2][69]
Especially since the 1990s, conventional or mainstream Western medicine often strives to heed the model of evidence-based medicine, EBM, which demotes medical theory, clinical experience, and physiological data to prioritize the results of controlled, and especially randomized, clinical trials of the treatment itself.[70][71] Although some clinical trials support qigong's effectiveness in treating conditions diagnosed in Western medicine, the quality of these studies is mostly low and, overall, their results are mixed.[72]
A 2009 systematic review on the effect of qigong exercises on reducing pain concluded that "the existing trial evidence is not convincing enough to suggest that internal qigong is an effective modality for pain management."[68]
A 2010 systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on cancer treatment concluded "the effectiveness of qigong in cancer care is not yet supported by the evidence from rigorous clinical trials."[69] A separate systematic review that looked at the effects of qigong exercises on various physiological or psychological outcomes found that the available studies were poorly designed, with a high risk of bias in the results. Therefore, the authors concluded, "Due to limited number of RCTs in the field and methodological problems and high risk of bias in the included studies, it is still too early to reach a conclusion about the efficacy and the effectiveness of qigong exercise as a form of health practice adopted by the cancer patients during their curative, palliative, and rehabilitative phases of the cancer journey."[73]
A 2011 overview of systematic reviews of controlled clinical trials, Lee et al. concluded that "the effectiveness of qigong is based mostly on poor quality research" and "therefore, it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage."[72] Although a 2010 comprehensive literature review found 77 peer-reviewed RCTs,[65] Lee et al.'s overview of systematic reviews as to particular health conditions found problems like sample size, lack of proper control groups, with lack of blinding associated with high risk of bias.[72]
A 2015 systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on cardiovascular diseases and hypertension found no conclusive evidence for effect.[67] Also in 2015, a systemic review into the effects on hypertension suggested that it may be effective, but that the evidence was not conclusive because of the poor quality of the trials it included, and advised more rigorous research in the future.[74] Another 2015 systematic review of qigong on biomarkers of cardiovascular disease concluded that some trials showed favorable effects, but concludes, "Most of the trials included in this review are likely to be at high risk of bias, so we have very low confidence in the validity of the results.[67]
Many claims have been made that qigong can benefit or ameliorate mental health conditions,[65] including improved mood, decreased stress reaction, and decreased anxiety and depression. Most medical studies have only examined psychological factors as secondary goals, although various studies have shown decreases in cortisol levels, a chemical hormone produced by the body in response to stress.[65]
Basic and clinical research in China during the 1980s was mostly descriptive, and few results were reported in peer-reviewed English-language journals.[27]: 22060–22063 Qigong became known outside China in the 1990s, and clinical randomized controlled trials investigating the effectiveness of qigong on health and mental conditions began to be published worldwide, along with systematic reviews.[27]: 21792–21798
Most existing clinical trials have small sample sizes and many have inadequate controls. Of particular concern is the impracticality of double blinding using appropriate sham treatments, and the difficulty of placebo control, such that benefits often cannot be distinguished from the placebo effect.[27]: 22278–22306 [75] Also of concern is the choice of which qigong form to use and how to standardize the treatment or amount with respect to the skill of the practitioner leading or administering treatment, the tradition of individualization of treatments, and the treatment length, intensity, and frequency.[27]: 6869–6920, 22361–22370 [76]
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