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{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Vigna subterranea.jpg
| genus = Vigna
| species = subterranea
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|(L.)]] Verdc.
| synonyms = * ''Arachis africana'' Burm. f.
* ''Glycine subterranea'' L.
* ''Voandzeia subterranea'' (L.) Thouars
* ''Voandzeia subterranea'' (L.) DC.
| synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/ild-3577|title=Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.|publisher=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species}}</ref>
}}

'''''Vigna subterranea''''' (common names: '''Bambara groundnut''', '''Bambara nut''',<ref name="GRIN2">{{GRIN|access-date=15 December 2017}}</ref> '''Bambara bean''',<ref name=":74">{{cite book |title=Lost Crops of Africa|publisher=The National Academies Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-309-10333-6 |volume=II: Vegetables |location=Washington, DC |page=53 |doi=10.17226/11763}}</ref> '''Congo goober''',<ref name="GRIN2" /> '''earth pea''',<ref>{{cite web |year=1994 |title=Definition And Classification Of Commodities (Draft): 4. Pulses And Derived Products |url=http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef04e.htm#4.02 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017140932/http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef04e.htm#4.02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> '''ground-bean''',<ref name="GRIN2" /> or '''hog-peanut'''<ref name="GRIN2" />) is a member of the family [[Fabaceae]]. Its name is derived from the [[Bambara people|Bambara ethnic group]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mubaiwa |first1=Juliet |last2=Fogliano |first2=Vincenzo |last3=Chidewe |first3=Cathrine |last4=Linnemann |first4=Anita R. |date=2017-03-04 |title=Hard-to-cook phenomenon in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) processing: Options to improve its role in providing food security |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=167–194 |doi=10.1080/87559129.2016.1149864 |s2cid=87980894 |issn=8755-9129|doi-access=free }}</ref> The plant originated in [[West Africa]]. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after [[peanut]] and [[cowpea]]. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers.<ref name=":74"/><ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last1=Azman Halimi |first1=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |s2cid=104447516 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref>

Bambara groundnut represents the third most important grain legume in semi-arid Africa.<ref name="Ocran2">{{cite book |last=Ocran |first=V. K |title=Seed Management Manual for Ghana |publisher=MOFA |year=1998 |location=Accra Ghana}}</ref> It is resistant to high temperatures and is suitable for marginal soils where other leguminous crops cannot be grown.<ref name="Yamaguchi2">{{cite book |last=Yamaguchi |first=M |title=World Vegetables |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1983 |location=New York}}</ref> It is a low-impact crop.<ref name="Bareyh2">{{cite journal |last=Baryeh |first=E.A. |year=2001 |title=Physical properties of bambara groundnuts |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=321–326 |doi=10.1016/s0260-8774(00)00136-9}}</ref> The entire plant is known for soil improvement<ref name="ecocrop52">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=https://www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-resources-planning-toolbox/category/details/en/c/1027491/ |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> because of nitrogen fixation.

''Vigna subterranea'' is [[geocarpy]] which ripens its pods underground, much like the [[peanut]] (also called a ''groundnut''). They can be eaten fresh or boiled after drying, and can be ground either fresh or dry to make [[pudding]]s.

== Origins and regions of cultivation ==
[[Image:Bambara nut unearthed..JPG|right|thumb|Freshly harvested Bambara nuts]]
[[Image:Bambara in the field.JPG|right|thumb|Bambara plants in the field]]
[[File:Vigna subterranea MHNT.BOT.2009.13.10.jpg|thumb|''Vigna subterranea'' - [[MHNT]]]]The origin of the Bambara groundnut is West Africa<ref name="Hepper2">{{cite journal |last=Hepper |first=FN |year=1963 |title=Plants of the 1957-58 West Africa Expedition II: The bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea) and Kersting's groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa) wild in West Africa |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=395–407 |doi=10.2307/4114681 |jstor=4114681}}</ref> and the region of cultivation is Sub-Saharan Africa's warm tropics.<ref name="ecoport22">{{cite web |last=Nichterlein |first=Karin |title=Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=10830&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full |access-date=16 March 2011 |publisher=Ecoport}}</ref> Bambara nut grows well anywhere groundnut (peanut) grows, and so is vastly present from [[Kwara state]], throughout the northern parts of Nigeria and Northern Ghana.

== Biology ==

=== Growth, development, physiology ===
Bambara groundnut is a herbaceous, intermediate, annual plant, with creeping stems at ground level. It is a small legume plant that grows to a height of 0.25–0.37m with compound leaves of three leaflets having stipules about 3&nbsp;mm long.<ref name=":42">{{cite book |title=Food and Potential Industrial Applications of Bambara Groundnut |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-73919-5 |editor1-last=Oyeyinka |editor1-first=Samson A. |location=Cham |editor2-last=Ade-Omowaye |editor2-first=Beatrice I.O.}}</ref> The flowers have a tube calyx about 1&nbsp;mm long and 5 lobes about 1&nbsp;mm long as well as a whitish yellow corolla, 4–7&nbsp;mm long.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Vigna subterranea (PROTA) — PlantUse Français |url=https://uses.plantnet-project.org/fr/Vigna_subterranea_(PROTA) |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=uses.plantnet-project.org}}</ref> The fruit is an indehiscent pod almost globose about 2.5&nbsp;cm in diameter.<ref name=":5" /> The plant generally looks like bunched leaves arising from branched stems, which form a crown on the soil surface.

Bambara is considered as a fast-growing crop. The growth cycle is between (min-max) 90–170 days<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and under optimal conditions the cycle is about 120–150 days<ref name="ecoport22"/> to pod maturity. Flowers appear 40–60 days<ref name="ecoport22" /> after planting. 30 days<ref name="ecoport22" /> after pollination the pod reaches maturity and during another 55 days<ref name="ecoport22" /> the seeds fully develop. Every 30 days they are produced again.

Generative reproduction is for the Bambara groundnut autogamous<ref name="ecoport22"/> ([[Self-fertilization#Autogamy|self-fertilization]]) and cleistogamous<ref name="ecoport22"/> ([[Cleistogamy|self-pollinating]]). After self-fertilization, pale yellow flowers are borne on the freely growing branching stems; these stems then grow downwards into the soil, taking the developing seed within the pods, which makes breeding and development of new cultivars for the traits of interest difficult.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Collinson |first1=S. T. |last2=Azam-Ali |first2=S. N. |last3=Chavula |first3=K. M. |last4=Hodson |first4=D. A. |date=May 1996 |title=Growth, development and yield of bambara groundnut ( Vigna subterranea ) in response to soil moisture |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0021859600074864/type/journal_article |journal=The Journal of Agricultural Science |language=en |volume=126 |issue=3 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1017/S0021859600074864 |s2cid=85621987 |issn=0021-8596}}</ref> The seeds will form pods encasing seeds just below the soil. The pods are round, wrinkled and each contains one or two seeds that are round, smooth and very hard when dried.The seeds may be cream colored, brown, red, mottled or black eyed and their size is about 8.5–15&nbsp;mm × 6.5–10&nbsp;mm × 5.5–9&nbsp;mm.<ref name=":42"/>

Several factors are essential for promoting cross-pollination in Bambara and these include a proper nursery habitat, short day lengths (<12h), an average temperature of 26&nbsp;°C, which is necessary for optimum flowering and pod formation and a relative humidity of 90%.<ref name=":42"/> The strict photoperiod requirement of Bambara also limits its productivity in countries further away from the equator. In some accessions, long days (>12h) negatively affect pod-setting, resulting in crop failure.<ref name=":42"/>

The genus Vigna, which includes about 80 species, is found throughout the tropics.<ref name=":5" /> There are considerable morphological differences between wild and domesticated types of Bambara groundnuts. Long runners are produced by wild Bambara groundnut, and the seeds are smaller (9–11&nbsp;mm long) and more uniform in size. The pods are thin and do not wrinkle when drying. Domesticated versions are more compact, have fleshy pods that wrinkle as they dry, with longer, less slender, and more erect petioles, and larger seeds (11–15&nbsp;mm long). Wild and domesticated types are sometimes distinguished as ''var. spontanea'' (Harms) Hepper (wild) and ''var. subterranea'' (cultivated).<ref name=":5" />

=== Biological nitrogen fixation ===
Like many other [[legume]]s, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of [[biological nitrogen fixation]]. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.<ref name=":42"/> The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

== Cultivation ==

=== Soil requirements ===
Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent [[Water logging (agriculture)|waterlogging]]. Well-drained soils make the harvest easier<ref name=":42" /> and prevent rotting of the pods.<ref name=":42"/> Stony areas are typically avoided to prevent damage of the pods.<ref name=":42"/>

Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100&nbsp;cm,<ref name="ecocrop52"/> with a light [[soil texture]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> [[Soil fertility]] should be low<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and [[soil pH]] is best suited between 5 and 6.5<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and should not be lower than 4.3<ref name="ecocrop52"/> or higher than 7.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut is tolerant to [[Soil salinity|salinity]], but high sodium chloride concentration in the soil will result in yield losses.

=== Climate requirements ===
The production is best suited between a latitude of 20° and 30°,<ref name="ecocrop52"/> i.e. the tropical wet and dry ([[Köppen climate classification|Aw]])<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and the subtropical dry summer ([[Köppen climate classification|Cs]])<ref name="ecocrop52"/> climate zones. Optimal temperature is between 19&nbsp;°C<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and 30&nbsp;°C.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Temperatures below 16&nbsp;°C<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and above 38&nbsp;°C<ref name="ecocrop52"/> are not suited for the production of Bambara groundnut.

The Bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.<ref name="ecoport22"/> The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300&nbsp;mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and optimal annual rainfall is between 750&nbsp;mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and 1400&nbsp;mm<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and should not exceed 3000&nbsp;mm.<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut can tolerate heavy rainfall, but it will result in yield losses if they happen at harvest.<ref name=":42"/>

=== Seedbed requirements and sowing ===
Before sowing, the seeds can be treated with [[pesticide]]s to prevent insect and fungal attack, and being eaten by bush fowl (''Numida meleagris''). Priming the seeds with water by soaking them overnight and then drying them before sowing improves seedling emergence, vigour and yield.<ref name=":42"/>

Sowing is usually performed manually by peasant farmers in tropical Africa, but it can also be done mechanically on industrial farms using modified soya bean planters. Manual sowing is generally done using a [[Hoe (tool)|hoe]] or a cutlass to open the soil. One seed is placed in each hole which are then closed.<ref name=":42" />

Seedbed type doesn't seem to affect yield or biomass production of Bambara groundnut.<ref name="Kouassi2">{{cite journal |last=Kouassi |first=N’. J |author2=I. A. Zoro Bi |year=2010 |title=Effect Of Sowing Density And Seedbed Type On Yield And Yield Components In Bambara Groundnut (''Vigna subterranea'') In Woodland Savannas Of Cote D'ivoire |journal=Experimental Agriculture |volume=46 |pages=99–110 |doi=10.1017/S0014479709990494 |s2cid=86318620}}</ref> The crop can thus be planted on flat terrain, although it is also planted in ridges.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal |author1=Adzawla, W |author2=Donkoh, SA |author3=Nyarko, G |author4=O'Reilly, P |author5=Mayes, S |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2}}</ref> Studies show that increased sowing density has a positive effect on production calculated on a per-area basis, but has a negative effect on per-plant yield. It is assumed that at higher sowing densities, increased competition between plants is the cause of lower pod and seed number per plant.<ref name="Kouassi2" />

=== Cropping system and fertilization ===
The cropping system is semi-permanent and the [[Bambara groundnut]] can be cultivated as single crop or as [[Intercropping|intercrop]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Best suited intercrops are [[Sorghum bicolor|sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[peanut]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[cassava]].<ref name="ecocrop52"/> Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as [[Intercropping|intercrop]], however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.<ref name="Rassel2">{{cite journal |last=Rassel |first=A |year=1960 |title=Voandzou, Voandzeia subterranea Thouars, and its cultivation in Kwango |url=http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19601403615.html?freeview=true |journal=Bull. Agric. Congo Belge |volume=51 |pages=1–26 |access-date=16 March 2011}}</ref> For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire, the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25<ref name="Kouassi2"/> plants per square meter. Despite its suitability for intercropping systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen,<ref>{{cite web |last1=FAO |title=Bambara groundnut |url=https://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/ |access-date=2022-11-10}}</ref> a non-negligible proportion of farmers grow the [[Bambara groundnut]] in monoculture and report that its performance is better as a single crop.<ref name=":14"/> Cultivation is mainly performed manually and is comparable to the production of [[peanut]].<ref name=":74"/>

The [[Bambara groundnut]] can grow on soils with low fertility and is even reported to do better on these soils than on fertile ones.<ref name=":74" /> Nevertheless, phosphate fertilization can have a beneficial effect. For example, the application of superphosphate can improve the yield of the Bambara groundnut.<ref name=":35">{{Cite journal |last1=Majola |first1=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=July 2021 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395|doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, fertilization with phosphorus enhances the crop's nitrogen fixation and increases its nitrogen content.<ref name="Yakubu">{{cite journal |author1=Yakubu, H. |author2=Kwari, J.D. |author3=Sandabe, M.K. |title=Effect of Phosphorus Fertilizer on Nitrogen Fixation by Some Grain Legume Varieties in Sudano – Sahelian Zone of North Eastern Nigeria |journal=Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science |date=2010 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.4314/njbas.v18i1.56837 |issn=0794-5698|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Harvest and postharvest treatment ===
The [[Bambara bean]] typically takes about 130–150 days to mature, but early or late harvests only marginally reduce the yield.<ref name=":74"/> The pods, which grow belowground, are harvested manually by pulling out the whole crop and picking the pods by hand.<ref name=":14"/> Then, they are usually dried in the sun for some days.<ref name=":74"/> Post-harvest losses are reported to be on a low level.<ref name=":14"/> However, insect pests can cause damage to stored grains, most importantly [[Bean weevil|Bruchids]].<ref name=":35"/>

=== Interactions: Pests, diseases, symbionts ===
It is widely regarded as a pest and disease resistant crop. However, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim, with reports of fungal attacks by ''[[Rhizoctonia solani]]'' in Southern Thailand, and ''Cercospora canescens'' and ''[[Colletotrichum capsici]]'' in Nigeria, causing [[brown blotch disease]]. The crop is also susceptible to attack by cowpea weevil (''[[Callosobruchus maculatus]]'').<ref name=":05"/>

== Production ==

=== Importance ===
The annual production of Bambara groundnut is estimated to be 0.2 million tonnes from an area of 0.25 million hectares worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the largest producer of Bambara groundnut, while a small quantity is produced in [[Southeast Asia]] (e.g., [[Thailand]] and [[Indonesia]]), the United States, and [[Australia]]. Additionally, the crop is cultivated in [[Brazil]], where it was putatively introduced in the 1600s with the slave trade.<ref name=":74"/> West Africa is the main Bambara groundnut production region in SSA, where Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon are the leading producers, contributing to 74% of global production.<ref name=":35"/> However, it was reported by Ghanaian farmers to contribute neither to a large part of the subsistence food nor of the income.<ref name=":14"/>

=== Worldwide production and yield ===
World production of ''Vigna subterranea'' increased from 29,800 tonnes in 1972<ref name="FAO2">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |access-date=2 February 2015 |publisher=FAO}}</ref> to 79,155 tonnes<ref name="FAO2"/> in 2015. 
{| class="wikitable"
!Production Year 2013 ''(Source [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor FAOSTAT])<ref name="FAO2"/>''
!Area Harvested (ha)
!Yield (kg/ha)
!Production (tonnes)
|-
|{{flag|Mali}}
|120,000
|9,498
|113,981
|-
|{{flag|Niger}}
|68,000
|4,412
|30,000
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|55,000
|8,909
|49,000
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|43,392
|8,444
|36,639
|-
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|4,828
|750
|14,000
|-
|'''World'''
|'''315,392'''
|'''7,724'''
|'''243,620'''
|}
The top six Bambara groundnut producing countries in Africa in 2018 include [[Burkina Faso]], Niger, [[Cameroon]], Mali, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a total production of 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, and 0.01 million tonnes, respectively.<ref name=":35" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=FAO {{!}} Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr/c/cb4831fr/ |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.fao.org |year=2021 |language=fr |doi=10.4060/cb4831fr|isbn=978-92-5-134633-4 |s2cid=241249323 }}</ref>

The yield level of Bambara groundnut in Africa varies from 0.6 to 1 tonne per hectare, depending on variety and production conditions. However, unshelled mean yields of up to 3 tonnes per hectare were reported when cultivating some landraces in the transition agro-ecological zone in Nigeria . A low mean yield of 0.85 tonnes per hectare was reported in Ghana under good management practices close to yield levels of other legumes such as cowpeas (0.80 tonnes per hecatare) and pigeon peas (0.78 tonnes per hectare).<ref name=":35"/>

== Nutrition ==
This nutrient-dense [[legume]] is sometimes termed a “complete food” due to its balanced macronutrient composition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Xin Lin |last2=Azam-Ali |first2=Susan |last3=Goh |first3=Ee Von |last4=Mustafa |first4=Maysoun |last5=Chai |first5=Hui Hui |last6=Ho |first6=Wai Kuan |last7=Mayes |first7=Sean |last8=Mabhaudhi |first8=Tafadzwanashe |last9=Azam-Ali |first9=Sayed |last10=Massawe |first10=Festo |date=2020 |title=Bambara Groundnut: An Underutilized Leguminous Crop for Global Food Security and Nutrition |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=7 |page=601496 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2020.601496 |issn=2296-861X |pmc=7758284 |pmid=33363196|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is considered to be a [[Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized food source]] in [[Benin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dansi |first=A. |author2=R. Vodouhe |author3=P. Azokpota |display-authors=etal |date=19 April 2012 |title=Diversity of the Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species of Importance in Benin |journal=The Scientific World Journal |volume=2012 |pages=932947 |doi=10.1100/2012/932947 |pmc=3349165 |pmid=22593712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The brown hull showed the highest concentrations of [[rutin]] and [[myricetin]] among [[flavonoid]]s, while the red hull resulted in having with the highest concentrations of [[Chlorogenic acid|chlorogenic]] and [[ellagic acid]] among [[tannin]] compounds.<ref name="Harris3">{{cite journal |author=Taahir Harris |author2=Victoria Jideani |author3=MarilizeLe Roes-Hill |date=September 1, 2018 |title=Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa |url=https://www.x-mol.com/paper/837047 |journal=Heliyon |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=e00833 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833 |pmc=6168962 |pmid=30294697|bibcode=2018Heliy...400833H }}</ref>

=== Macronutrient content ===
{{Graph:PieChart|legend=Macronutrient content of Bambara groundnuts|values=[{"x":"Carbohydrates = 64%", "y": 64}, {"x":"Proteins = 24%", "y": 24}, {"x":"Total fat = 7%", "y": 7}, {"x":"Total dietary fibers = 5%", "y": 5}]}}Bambara groundnut has nutritive value ranging between 57.9% to 64% [[carbohydrate]] and 24.0% to 25.5% [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] content.<ref name="KaptsoNjintang20142">{{cite journal |last1=Kaptso |first1=Kuaté Giscard |last2=Njintang |first2=Yanou Nicolas |last3=Nguemtchouin |first3=Mbouga Marie Goletti |last4=Scher |first4=Joël |last5=Hounhouigan |first5=Joseph |last6=Mbofung |first6=Carl Moses |year=2014 |title=Physicochemical and micro-structural properties of flours, starch and proteins from two varieties of legumes: bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |volume=52 |issue=8 |pages=4915–4924 |doi=10.1007/s13197-014-1580-7 |issn=0022-1155 |pmc=4519478 |pmid=26243911}}</ref> In comparison, soybean (''Glycine max'') and chickpea (''Cicer ariteneum'') have 27% and 61% of carbohydrates.<ref name=":05"/>

=== Micronutrient content ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Micronutrient content of the Bambara groundnut.<ref name=":05"/>
!Micronutrient
!Content
!Comparison with chickpeas
|-
|Sodium (mg)
|0.90 – 25.20
|6.7 – 111.57
|-
|Potassium (mg)
|308.40 – 2200.00
|994. 5 – 1279.82
|-
|Phosphorus (mg)
|173.97 – 563.00
|241. 92 – 571.00
|-
|Calcium (mg)
|0.39 – 76.01
|81.70 – 222.65
|-
|Magnesium (mg)
|124.99 – 555.10
|3.21 – 191.00
|-
|Iron (mg)
|11.38 – 149.50
|4.49 – 53.43
|-
|Zinc (mg)
|2.14 – 19.73
|2.45 – 6.33
|}

=== Anti-nutritional factors ===
The presence of [[anti-nutritional factor]]s (ANFs) in the ''Vigna subterranea'' can reduce protein digestibility, affecting [[bioavailability]] of [[amino acid]]s by up to 50%, as well as lowering digestibility and bioavailability of other nutrients. ANFs include [[enzyme inhibitor]]s, [[flatulence]] factors, [[tannin]]s, [[phytic acid]] and [[saponin]]s.<ref name=":05"/> ANFs can be removed or lowered by a variety of treatments:

# Cooking and thermal treatment of pulse seeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Melini |first1=Valentina |last2=Melini |first2=Francesca |date=2021-02-07 |title=Functional Components and Anti-Nutritional Factors in Gluten-Free Grains: A Focus on Quinoa Seeds |journal=Foods |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=351 |doi=10.3390/foods10020351 |pmid=33562277 |pmc=7915320 |issn=2304-8158|doi-access=free }}</ref>
# Applications of pressure, heat, infrared radiation, dry extrusion and chemicals such as cysteine have been shown to reduce [[trypsin inhibitor]] activity in whole [[soybean]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vagadia |first1=Brinda Harish |last2=Vanga |first2=Sai Kranthi |last3=Raghavan |first3=Vijaya |date=2017-06-01 |title=Inactivation methods of soybean trypsin inhibitor – A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224415301928 |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=64 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2017.02.003 |issn=0924-2244}}</ref>

== Culinary use ==
The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content<ref name="ecocrop52"/> and for digestive system applications.<ref name="ecocrop52" /> In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similarly to other beans.

The Bambara groundnut needs to be cooked for a relatively long time, which means that more fuel is needed than for cooking other legumes. The cooking time for fresh beans is 45–60 minutes, and dry beans may even take 3–4 hours.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hillocks, R.J. |author2=Bennett, C. |author3=Mponda, O.M. |date=2012 |title=Bambara Nut: A Review of Utilisation, Market Potential and Crop Improvement |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/78601 |journal=African Crop Science Journal |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |issn=1021-9730}}</ref> This presents an obstacle to a more widespread use of this crop. Moreover, if the bean is not cooked enough, it can cause bloating of the stomach, constipation and flatulence.<ref name=":14"/>

=== Traditional culinary use of Bambara groundnut in Nigeria ===
In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried Bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and, more rarely, vegetables (e.g., utazi), then poured into banana leaf wraps or one-liter cellophane bags before being boiled into a pudding to make ''[[okpa]]'', a common breakfast food. During the rainy season in many parts of central Nigeria, the fresh Bambara beans are cooked with their shells still on them, then eaten as a snack.

=== Potential use in probiotic beverage ===
Bambara groundnut milk can be fermented with [[lactic acid bacteria]] to make a [[probiotic]] beverage that not only increase the economic value of the nutritious legume but also help in addressing [[malnutrition]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murevanhema |first1=Yvonne Y. |last2=Jideani |first2=Victoria A. |date=2013-01-01 |title=Potential of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) Milk as a Probiotic Beverage—A Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.574803 |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=954–967 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.574803 |issn=1040-8398 |pmid=23768187|s2cid=3143187 }}</ref>

=== Use as livestock feed ===
The Bambara groundnut plays an important role in the diet and culture of populations. The leaves, rich in phosphorus, are used for livestock feed. Seeds are given to pigs and poultry.<ref name=":35"/>

==Traditional African medicine ==
The Bambara groundnut is used in some [[traditional medicine|traditional African medicine]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Koné |first1=M. |title=Chapter 22 - Bambara Groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. (Fabaceae)] Usage in Human Health |last2=Paice |first2=A. G. |last3=Touré |first3=Y. |publisher=Academic Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780123756886 |editor-last=Preedy |editor-first=V. R. |pages=189–196 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-375688-6.10022-2 |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first2=R. R. |editor-last3=Patel |editor-first3=V. B.}}</ref>

==Crop development==
There are [[genetic resources]] available for breeding since around 6145 germplasms of the Bambara groundnut have been collected and are stored ex situ.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=M. M. H. |last2=Rafii |first2=M. Y. |last3=Ramlee |first3=S. I. |last4=Jusoh |first4=M. |last5=Al-Mamun |first5=M. |date=2021 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc): A Crop for the New Millennium, Its Genetic Diversity, and Improvements to Mitigate Future Food and Nutritional Challenges |journal=Sustainability |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=5530|doi=10.3390/su13105530 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The primary goal of Bambara improvement programs is to focus on seed yield and nutritional quality traits. There is a notable gap between the potential yield of 4 t/ha and the average yield of 0.85 t/ha reported for African countries. Thus, breeding should aim at improving the yield. Results of studies exhibited high protein content among the test genotypes. Similarly, high levels of essential [[fatty acids]], [[thiamine]], ribovin, and [[vitamin K]] were recorded. Moreover, scientists examined the chemical properties of starches in Bambara groundnut. The results revealed that seed source and crop management practices affected chemical composition.<ref name=":05"/> Food fortification, the use of artificial supplements, and food imports are among the strategies used to overcome the problem of malnutrition in Africa. The adoption of traditional plant breeding methods to enhance nutritional benefits of orphan food crops such as Bambara groundnut is an economic and affordable strategy to decrease malnutrition in Africa.<ref name=":35"/>

The form and colour of Bambara groundnut were all important factors to optimize the best extraction yield of [[phytochemicals]]. Overall, the hulls of the crop were the optimum source of flavonoids and tannins: the brown and red hulls had the highest concentration of flavonoids compared to whole and dehulled, with the highest flavonoid concentration being rutin at 24.46&nbsp;mg g−1 found in brown hulls and myricetin at 1.80&nbsp;mg g−1 found in red hulls. Lastly, formulating products with higher concentration of Bambara groundnut hulls could potentially result in a product with higher phytochemical content.<ref name="Harris3"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MV014 Bambara Groundnut -- Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040508063542/http://cee.mtu.edu/~jeannis/Groundnuts.html Bambara Groundnut ... a Link from the Past and Resource for the Future]
*{{ITIS |id=506274 |taxon=''Vigna subterranea''}}
{{WestAfricanPlants|Vigna subterranea}}
* [http://www.nuscommunity.org/about-us/neglected-underutilized-species/bambara-groundnut/ Bambara groundnut - NUS Community, Bioversity International]

[[Category:Crops originating from Africa]]
[[Category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Vigna|Subterranea]]
[[Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops]]

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