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==Terminology== |
==Terminology== |
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The use of the terms ''white'', ''red'', ''light'' and ''dark'' in reference to meat may have different meanings and implications based on the context.<ref>{{Cite journal| |
The use of the terms ''white'', ''red'', ''light'' and ''dark'' in reference to meat may have different meanings and implications based on the context.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keeton|first1=Jimmy T.|last2=Dikeman|first2=Michael E.|date=2017-10-01|title='Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion|url=https://academic.oup.com/af/article/7/4/29/4775073|journal=Animal Frontiers|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=29–33|doi=10.2527/af.2017.0440|issn=2160-6056}}</ref> Some research suggests that ''white meat'' is one of the meat terminologies that has caused a large amount of public confusion due to oversimplification in scientific publications, misuse of the term in popular press articles and conversation and evolution of the term over decades. Grouping meat products into "red" or "white" categories alone may be too vague to be sufficiently informative, causing the foods being discussed to be poorly understood and misidentified. One point of discussion is whether scholars should avoid the use of "red" and "white" terms altogether and identify meat derived from a specific species based on defined parameters such as [[myoglobin]] or heme iron content, lipid profile, fatty acid composition, cholesterol content, etc.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keeton|first1=Jimmy|last2=Dikeman|first2=Michael|date=September 21, 2017|title='Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319973193|journal=Animal Frontiers|volume=7|issue=4|pages=29–33|doi=10.2527/af.2017.0440|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> |
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In nutritional studies, ''white meat'' may also include [[amphibian]]s like [[Frog legs|frogs]], [[Snails#as food|land snails]].<ref>{{Cite journal| |
In nutritional studies, ''white meat'' may also include [[amphibian]]s like [[Frog legs|frogs]], [[Snails#as food|land snails]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oliveira|first1=Lillian Paranhos Laurindo de|last2=Seixas Filho|first2=José Teixeira de|last3=Pereira|first3=Marcelo Maia|last4=Mello|first4=Silvia Conceição Reis Pereira|date=2017|title=Frog meat in special diets: potential for use as a functional food|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.20950/1678-2305.2017.99.106|journal=B. Inst. Pesca|volume=43|language=en|pages=99–106|doi=10.20950/1678-2305.2017.99.106}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Lippi|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Mattiuzzi|first2=Camilla|last3=Cervellin|first3=Gianfranco|date=January 2016|title=Meat consumption and cancer risk: a critical review of published meta-analyses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26633248/|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=97|pages=1–14|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.11.008|issn=1879-0461|pmid=26633248}}</ref> Mammal flesh ''(eg; beef, pork, goat, lamb, doe, rabbit)'' is excluded and considered to be red meat.<ref name="auto"/> Periodically some researchers allow lean cuts of rabbit to be an outlier and categorize it into the “white meat” category because it shares certain nutritional similarities with poultry.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Seong Rae|last2=Kim|first2=Kyuwoong|last3=Lee|first3=Sang Ah|last4=Kwon|first4=Sung Ok|last5=Lee|first5=Jong-Koo|last6=Keum|first6=NaNa|last7=Park|first7=Sang Min|date=2019-04-11|title=Effect of Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption on the Risk of Gastric Cancer: An Overall and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis|journal=Nutrients|volume=11|issue=4|page=826|doi=10.3390/nu11040826|issn=2072-6643|pmc=6520977|pmid=30979076}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becerra-Tomás|first1=Nerea|last2=Babio|first2=Nancy|last3=Martínez-González|first3=Miguel Ángel|last4=Corella|first4=Dolores|last5=Estruch|first5=Ramon|last6=Ros|first6=Emilio|last7=Fitó|first7=Montserrat|last8=Serra-Majem|first8=Lluís|last9=Salaverria|first9=Itziar|last10=Lamuela-Raventós|first10=Rosa M.|last11=Lapetra|first11=José|date=2016-12-01|title=Replacing red meat and processed red meat for white meat, fish, legumes or eggs is associated with lower risk of incidence of metabolic syndrome|url=https://www.clinicalnutritionjournal.com/article/S0261-5614(16)30005-X/abstract|journal=Clinical Nutrition|language=English|volume=35|issue=6|pages=1442–1449|doi=10.1016/j.clnu.2016.03.017|issn=0261-5614|pmid=27087650|hdl=10230/28278}}</ref> Otherwise, nutritional studies and social studies popularly define "red meat" as coming from any [[mammal]], "seafood" as coming from fish and shellfish, and "white meat" coming from birds and other animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Touvier|first1=Mathilde|last2=Kesse-Guyot|first2=Emmanuelle|last3=Méjean|first3=Caroline|last4=Estaquio|first4=Carla|last5=Péneau|first5=Sandrine|last6=Hercberg|first6=Serge|last7=Castetbon|first7=Katia|date=2010|title=Variations in Compliance with Recommendations and Types of Meat/Seafood/Eggs according to Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Categories|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/271469|journal=Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism|language=english|volume=56|issue=1|pages=65–73|doi=10.1159/000271469|issn=0250-6807|pmid=20051683|s2cid=20787103}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hayley|first1=Alexa|last2=Zinkiewicz|first2=Lucy|last3=Hardiman|first3=Kate|date=2015-01-01|title=Values, attitudes, and frequency of meat consumption. Predicting meat-reduced diet in Australians|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666314004711|journal=Appetite|language=en|volume=84|pages=98–106|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.002|pmid=25312749|s2cid=29746970|issn=0195-6663}}</ref> Some entomologists have referred to edible insects as "the next white meat".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yates‐Doerr|first=Emily|date=2012|title=Meeting the demand for meat?|url=https://rai.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2012.00849.x|journal=Anthropology Today|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=11–15|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8322.2012.00849.x|issn=1467-8322}}</ref> |
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The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) typically classifies red meat, poultry, and [[seafood]] as their own separate categories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=USDA ERS - U.S. Per Capita Availability of Red Meat, Poultry, and Seafood on the Rise|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/december/us-per-capita-availability-of-red-meat-poultry-and-seafood-on-the-rise/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.ers.usda.gov}}</ref> The USDA considers all livestock animals ''(including beef, veal, pork)'' to be "red meat” because their muscles contain enough myoglobin that their fresh meat is deep red in color prior to being cooked. Poultry and seafood are not considered to be red meats because they contain less myoglobin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fresh Pork from Farm to Table|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/fresh-pork-from-farm-to-table/CT_Index|url-status=live|website=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> The term ''white meat'' is used to describe poultry in particular;<ref>{{Cite web|title=The color of meat and poultry|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/the-color-of-meat-and-poultry/the-color-of-meat-and-poultry/ct_index|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Food standards and labeling policy book|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/7c48be3e-e516-4ccf-a2d5-b95a128f04ae/Labeling-Policy-Book.pdf?MOD=AJPERES|url-status=live}}</ref> while this includes duck and geese, they are considered to be a [[dark meat (poultry)|dark meat]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/fsis-content/internet/main/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/poultry-preparation/duck-and-goosefrom-farm-to-table/ct_index#11|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.fsis.usda.gov}}</ref> Seafood is treated as a distinct product and not included as a type of meat by the USDA's [[Food Safety and Inspection Service|FSIS]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meat preparation|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) makes a distinction between white meat and seafood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Healthy diet: Keys to eating well|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/healthy-diet-keys-to-eating-well|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> |
The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) typically classifies red meat, poultry, and [[seafood]] as their own separate categories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=USDA ERS - U.S. Per Capita Availability of Red Meat, Poultry, and Seafood on the Rise|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/december/us-per-capita-availability-of-red-meat-poultry-and-seafood-on-the-rise/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.ers.usda.gov}}</ref> The USDA considers all livestock animals ''(including beef, veal, pork)'' to be "red meat” because their muscles contain enough myoglobin that their fresh meat is deep red in color prior to being cooked. Poultry and seafood are not considered to be red meats because they contain less myoglobin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fresh Pork from Farm to Table|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/fresh-pork-from-farm-to-table/CT_Index|url-status=live|website=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> The term ''white meat'' is used to describe poultry in particular;<ref>{{Cite web|title=The color of meat and poultry|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/the-color-of-meat-and-poultry/the-color-of-meat-and-poultry/ct_index|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Food standards and labeling policy book|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/7c48be3e-e516-4ccf-a2d5-b95a128f04ae/Labeling-Policy-Book.pdf?MOD=AJPERES|url-status=live}}</ref> while this includes duck and geese, they are considered to be a [[dark meat (poultry)|dark meat]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/fsis-content/internet/main/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/poultry-preparation/duck-and-goosefrom-farm-to-table/ct_index#11|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.fsis.usda.gov}}</ref> Seafood is treated as a distinct product and not included as a type of meat by the USDA's [[Food Safety and Inspection Service|FSIS]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meat preparation|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) makes a distinction between white meat and seafood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Healthy diet: Keys to eating well|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/healthy-diet-keys-to-eating-well|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> |
In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. A common example of white meat is the lighter-colored meatofpoultry (light meat), coming from the breast, as contrasted with dark meat from the legs. Poultry white ("light") meat is made up of fast-twitch muscle fibres, while red ("dark") meat is made up of muscles with fibres that are slow-twitch.[1] In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and sometimes pork.[2][3][4][5]
Innutritional studies, white meat includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat.[6] Some types of fish, such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked. Certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as white meat are red when raw, such as duck and goose. These factors have resulted in debate centering on the definition of white meat.
The use of the terms white, red, light and dark in reference to meat may have different meanings and implications based on the context.[7] Some research suggests that white meat is one of the meat terminologies that has caused a large amount of public confusion due to oversimplification in scientific publications, misuse of the term in popular press articles and conversation and evolution of the term over decades. Grouping meat products into "red" or "white" categories alone may be too vague to be sufficiently informative, causing the foods being discussed to be poorly understood and misidentified. One point of discussion is whether scholars should avoid the use of "red" and "white" terms altogether and identify meat derived from a specific species based on defined parameters such as myoglobin or heme iron content, lipid profile, fatty acid composition, cholesterol content, etc.[8]
In nutritional studies, white meat may also include amphibians like frogs, land snails.[9][10] Mammal flesh (eg; beef, pork, goat, lamb, doe, rabbit) is excluded and considered to be red meat.[6] Periodically some researchers allow lean cuts of rabbit to be an outlier and categorize it into the “white meat” category because it shares certain nutritional similarities with poultry.[10][11][12] Otherwise, nutritional studies and social studies popularly define "red meat" as coming from any mammal, "seafood" as coming from fish and shellfish, and "white meat" coming from birds and other animals.[13][14] Some entomologists have referred to edible insects as "the next white meat".[15]
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) typically classifies red meat, poultry, and seafood as their own separate categories.[16] The USDA considers all livestock animals (including beef, veal, pork) to be "red meat” because their muscles contain enough myoglobin that their fresh meat is deep red in color prior to being cooked. Poultry and seafood are not considered to be red meats because they contain less myoglobin.[17] The term white meat is used to describe poultry in particular;[18][19] while this includes duck and geese, they are considered to be a dark meat.[20] Seafood is treated as a distinct product and not included as a type of meat by the USDA's FSIS.[21] The World Health Organization (WHO) makes a distinction between white meat and seafood.[22]
Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein.
Dark meat contains 2.64 times more saturated fat than white meat, per gram of protein.[23] One commentator wrote that dark meat contains more vitamins,[24] while a New York Times columnist has stated the two meats are nearly identical in nutritional value, especially when compared with typical red meat. For ground-based birds like chicken and turkeys, dark meats occur in the legs, which are used to support the weight of the animals while they move. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 28 grams (1 oz) of boneless, skinless turkey breast contains about one gram of fat, compared with roughly two grams of fat for 28 g (1 oz) of boneless, skinless thigh.[25] The numbers go up when the skin is kept in: a chicken thigh, with skin intact, has 13 grams of total fat and 3.5 grams of saturated fat per 85 g (3 oz) serving; this is about 20 percent of the recommended maximum daily intake.[26] Birds which use their chest muscles for sustained flight (such as geese and ducks) have dark meat throughout their bodies.[27]
Because of health concerns, meat producers have positioned pork as "white meat", taking advantage of the traditional gastronomic definition. The United States National Pork Board has marketed their product as "Pork. The Other White Meat".
In Israel, where Jewish dietary laws which forbid the consumption of pork are popularly practiced, "white meat" is the accepted euphemism for pork.[28]
The health effects that correlate with white meat consumption have been studied as compared to red meat and vegetarian diets. There is a decreased incidence of stroke.[29] There is no association with obesity or insulin resistance.[30][31] White meat appears to have a neutral or favorable effect on blood coagulation profiles.[32] There is additional evidence that myoglobin promotes carcinogenesis in colorectal models and therefore epidemiologic evidence supports reduced prevalence of colon cancer in those who consume white meat as opposed to red meat.[33]
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