Jump to content
Main menu Navigation ●Main page ●Contents ●Current events ●Random article ●About Wikipedia ●Contact us ●Donate Contribute ●Help ●Learn to edit ●Community portal ●Recent changes ●Upload file
●Create account ●Log in ●Create account ● Log in Pages for logged out editors learn more ●Contributions ●Talk
View source for Bethlehem

●Article ●Talk ●Read ●View source ●View history Tools Actions ●Read ●View source ●View history General ●What links here ●Related changes ●Upload file ●Special pages ●Page information ●Get shortened URL ●Download QR code ●Wikidata item Appearance ← Bethlehem You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reason:
This page is currently protected so that only extended confirmed users and administrators can edit it.
Why is the page protected?

While most articles can be edited by anyone, extended confirmed protection is sometimes necessary to prevent disruptive editing on controversial pages.
The reason for protection can be found in the protection log. If there are no relevant entries in the protection log, the page may have been moved after being protected.
What can I do?

Discuss this page with others.
For move-protected pages, see requested moves.
Request that the page's protection level be reduced.
Find out more about how to get started editing Wikipedia.
If you have noticed an error or have a suggestion for a simple, non-controversial change, you can submit an edit request by clicking the button below and following the instructions. An administratororextended confirmed user may then make the change on your behalf. Please check the talk page first in case the issue is already being discussed.
Submit an edit request
If you wrote any text, please save it temporarily to your device until you can edit this page.
Page notice
You are subject to additional rules when you edit this article.
If you do not follow these rules, you may be blocked from editing:
You must be logged-in, have 500 edits and an account age of 30 days

You may not make more than 1 revert within 24 hours on this article (except in limited circumstances)

This article is related to the Arab–Israeli conflict, a contentious topic. Pages related to this contentious topic are subject to additional rules as authorized by the Arbitration Committee. Before editing, please familiarize yourself with the contentious topic policy.
You can view and copy the source of this page:
{{Short description|City in the West Bank, Palestine}}
{{about|the city in the West Bank}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Bethlehem
| translit_lang1     = Arabic
| translit_lang1_type = [[Arabic script|Arabic]]
| translit_lang1_info = {{Lang|ar|{{Script/Arabic|بيت لحم}}|rtl=yes}}
| translit_lang1_type1 = [[Latin script|Latin]]
| translit_lang1_info1 = Beit Laḥm (official)<br />Bayt Laḥm (unofficial)
| translit_lang2     = Hebrew
| translit_lang2_type = [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]
| translit_lang2_info = {{Lang|he|{{Script/Hebrew|בֵּית לֶחֶם}}|rtl=yes}}
| type               = [[List of cities administered by the Palestinian Authority|Municipality type A]]
| image_skyline      = Bethlehem collage.jpg
| image_caption      = From top, left to right: [[Church of the Nativity]], Graffiti on the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]], [[Chapel of the Milk Grotto]], [[Mosque of Omar (Bethlehem)|Mosque of Omar]]  in [[Manger Square]], [[Church of Saint Catherine, Bethlehem|Church of St. Catherine]] and skyline of the city
| image_blank_emblem = Municipal Seal of Bethlehem.svg
| blank_emblem_type  = Municipal Seal ([[Palestinian National Authority|PNA]])
| pushpin_map        = West Bank#Palestine
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Bethlehem within the [[West Bank]]##Location of Bethlehem within the [[State of Palestine]]
| image_map          = 
| map_caption        = 
| coordinates        = {{coord|31|42|16|N|35|12|23|E|region:PS|display=inline,title}}
| grid_name          = [[Palestine grid|Palestine&nbsp;grid]]
| grid_position      = 
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = {{flag|Palestine|name=Palestine}}
| subdivision_type1  = [[Governorates of the Palestinian National Authority|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Bethlehem Governorate|Bethlehem]]
| established_title  = Founded
| established_date   = 1400 BCE (est.)
| government_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags -->
| government_type    = [[Palestinian enclaves|Area A City]] (from 1995)
| leader_title       = Head of Municipality
| leader_name        = [[Anton Salman]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Members of the Municipal Council |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/members-of-the-municipal-council |website=Bethlehem municipality |access-date=August 2, 2018 |archive-date=October 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020154252/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/members-of-the-municipal-council |url-status=live }}</ref>
| unit_pref          = dunam
| area_footnotes     = 
| area_total_km2     = 
| area_total_dunam   = 10611
| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m        = 
| elevation_min_m    = 
| elevation_max_m    = 
| population_total   = {{Palestine populations|Bethlehem}}
| population_as_of   = {{Palestine populations|year}}
| population_footnotes = {{Palestine populations|reference}}
| population_note    = 
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro   = 97,559
| blank_name_sec1    = Etymology
| blank_info_sec1    = ''House of Meat'' ([[Arabic]]); ''House of Bread'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Aramaic]])
| website            = [http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en www.bethlehem-city.org]
| footnotes          = 
| official_name      = 
| population_demonym = Bethlehemi
| pushpin_label      = Bethlehem
| pushpin_label_position = right
}}

'''Bethlehem''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɛ|θ|l|ɪ|h|ɛ|m}}; {{lang-ar|بيت لحم}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Bayt Laḥm}}'', {{Audio|ArBethlehem.ogg|pronunciation|help=no}}; {{lang-he|בֵּית לֶחֶם}} ''{{transliteration|he|Bēṯ Leḥem}}'') is a city in the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Israeli-occupied West Bank]] of the [[State of Palestine]], located about {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=off|0|spell=on}} south of [[Jerusalem]]. It is the capital of the [[Bethlehem Governorate]], and as of {{Palestine populations|year}} had a population of {{formatnum:{{Palestine populations|Bethlehem}}}} people.{{Palestine populations|reference}} The city's economy is largely [[Tourism in the State of Palestine|tourist-driven]]; international tourism peaks around and during [[Christmas]], when [[Christians]] embark on a pilgrimage to the [[Church of the Nativity]], revered as the location of the [[Nativity of Jesus]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/travel/16westbank.html|title=In the West Bank, Politics and Tourism Remain Bound Together Inextricably – New York Times|access-date=January 22, 2008|work=The New York Times|first1=David|last1=Kaufman|first2=Marisa S.|last2=Katz|date=April 16, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615222743/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/16/travel/16westbank.html|archive-date=June 15, 2013}}</ref><ref name="BH">{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehemhotel.com/to-visit-bethlehem |title=Places to Visit In & Around Bethlehem |publisher=Bethlehem Hotel|access-date=November 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004839/http://www.bethlehemhotel.com/to-visit-bethlehem|archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref>

A possible first mention of Bethlehem is in the [[Amarna letters|Amarna correspondence]] of [[ancient Egypt]], dated to 1350–1330 BCE, although that reading is uncertain. In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the period of the [[Israelites]] is described; it identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of [[David]].<ref>'''2 Chronicles 11:5–6''' (Note: Though v. 6 is frequently translated to say simply that Rehoboam ''built'' the city, the Hebrew phrase in v. 5, just prior, וַיִּ֧בֶן עָרִ֛ים לְמָצ֖וֹר ''wayyiḇen ‘ārîm l<sup>e</sup>māṣôr'' means "(and) he built cities into fortresses". Verse 5 is cited by at least one prominent Hebrew lexicon in illustration of this fact. See Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J., ''The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament'' (electronic edition; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994–2000), entry for the pertinent root בנה ''bnh'', p. 139. Def. 3 reads as follows: "—3. with לְ to develop buildings: עָרִים לְמָצוֹר cities into fortresses 2C[hronicles] 11:5".)</ref> In the [[New Testament]], the city is identified as the birthplace of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]]. Under the [[Roman Empire]], the city of Bethlehem was destroyed by [[Hadrian]], but later rebuilt by [[Constantine the Great]], who commissioned the Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. In 529, the Church of the Nativity was heavily damaged by [[Samaritans]] involved in the [[Samaritan revolts]]; following the victory of the [[Byzantine Empire]], it was rebuilt by [[Justinian I]].

Amidst the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], Bethlehem became part of [[Jund Filastin]] in 637. [[Muslims]] continued to rule the city until 1099, when it was conquered by the [[Crusades|Crusaders]], who replaced the local Christian [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] clergy with [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] ones. In the mid-13th century, Bethlehem's walls were demolished by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]]. However, they were rebuilt by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 16th century, following the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Ottoman–Mamluk War]].<ref name= BMH>{{cite web| url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/index.php| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113150138/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/index.php|archive-date=January 13, 2008|title=History and Mithology of Bethlehem|publisher=Bethlehem Municipality|access-date=January 22, 2008}}</ref> After the dissolution of the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the end of [[World War I]], it became part of [[Mandatory Palestine]] until 1948, when it was [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexed]] by [[Jordan]] during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. During the 1967 [[Six Day War]], Bethlehem was occupied by Israel along with the rest of the West Bank. Since the [[Oslo Accords]] between Israel and the [[Palestinian National Authority]], Bethlehem has been designated as part of [[Palestinian enclaves|Area A of the West Bank]], nominally rendering it as being under [[List of cities administered by the Palestinian Authority|Palestinian control]].<ref name="BMH"/> Movement around the city is limited due to the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]].

While it was historically a city of [[Arab Christians]], Bethlehem now has a majority of [[Arab Muslims]]; while it is still home to a significant population of [[Palestinian Christians]], this community has dwindled significantly, mostly due to difficulties resulting from living under the Israeli occupation.<ref name="AJ1"/> Presently, Bethlehem has become encircled by dozens of [[Israeli settlement]]s, which significantly hinder the ability of [[Palestinians]] in the city to openly access their land and livelihoods, which has contributed to the exodus of Palestinians.<ref name= Plp>{{Cite news|title=Settlements choke peace in the little town of Bethlehem|last=Philp|first=Catherine|date=December 24, 2013|work=[[The Times]]|pages=28–29}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The current name for Bethlehem in local languages is {{Audio|ArBethlehem.ogg|''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Bayt Laḥm}}''|help=no}} /Bēt laḥm/ in Arabic ({{lang-ar|بيت لحم}}), literally meaning "house of meat", and ''{{transliteration|he|Bet Leḥem}}'' in Hebrew ({{lang-he|בֵּית לֶחֶם}}), literally "house of bread" or "house of food."<ref name= CIIP>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/663773367 |title=Corpus inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: a multi-lingual corpus of the inscriptions from Alexander to Muhammad |publisher=[[de Gruyter]] |others=Eran Lupu, Marfa Heimbach, Naomi Schneider, Hannah Cotton |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-11-022219-7 |volume=IV: Iudaea / Idumaea |location=Berlin |pages=635 |oclc=663773367 |quote=The name Bethlehem (Hebr. Bet Leḥem; LXX Βηθλέεμ; Βαιθλέεμ; Aramaic Bêt leḥem) combines the Hebrew words ''bayit'' "house" and ''leḥem'' "bread" and thus means "house of bread/food." Some claim that it is connected with the verb root ''lḥm'' "to fight," whence it would mean "house of war/fighting." That seems less likely. It has also been suggested that there is a connection with the name of the Mesopotamian goddess, Laḫmu, the mother of Anšar (sky) and Kišar (earth) in the Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish, but this is generally rejected.}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marom |first1=Roy |last2=Zadok |first2=Ran |date=2023 |title=Early-Ottoman Palestinian Toponymy: A Linguistic Analysis of the (Micro-)Toponyms in Haseki Sultan's Endowment Deed (1552) |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0cs6f5k5 |journal=Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins |language=en |volume=139 |issue=2}}</ref>The city was called in {{Lang-grc|Βηθλεέμ}} {{IPA-grc|bɛːtʰle.ém}} and in {{lang-la|Bethleem}}.<ref name= Losch>{{cite book |author=Losch, Richard R. |title=The uttermost part of the earth: a guide to places in the Bible |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2805-7 |edition=Illustrated |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51 |access-date=October 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122131920/https://books.google.com/books?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Amarna letter EA290 ]] makes reference to a town bīt-ninurta which has been read as Bit-Lachmi by scholar [[W. F. Albright]], following a proposal by Otto Schroeder in 1815 and making it a potential first historical reference to Bethlehem. This reading is, however, uncertain and has met with objections.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJOYDgAAQBAJ&dq=Albright+was+quick+to+pick+up+on+Schroeder%27s+claim+to+have+found+the+first+mention+of+Bethlehem.+But+he+offered+a+different+and+far+simpler+translation.+He+argued+that+the+cuneiform&pg=PT51 | title=Bethlehem: Biography of a Town | isbn=978-1-56858-584-0 | last1=Blincoe | first1=Nicholas | date=November 7, 2017 | publisher=PublicAffairs }}</ref>
==="House of the god Lahmu"===
Canaanite and Israelite toponyms starting with ''beth'' are interpreted to mean "house of", with 'house' understood as 'temple' and the second part of the name indicating the deity the local temple was dedicated to.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Rainey |first= A. F. |author-link= Anson Rainey |title= The Toponymics of Eretz-Israel |journal=[[Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|BASOR]] |number= 231 |date= October 1978 |pages= 1-17 (<span class="ltr">6</span>) |doi= 10.2307/1356743 |jstor= 1356743 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1356743 |access-date=May 14, 2024}}</ref><ref name= Mum>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=G. R. H. |date=1986-01-01 |title=The Mother-Maid at Bethlehem |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zatw.1986.98.1.56/html |journal=Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft |language= |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=56–72 |doi=10.1515/zatw.1986.98.1.56 |issn=1613-0103 |quote=The form of the name Bethlehem certainly connotes that the latter element is not a common noun but a proper noun, the name of a god who has his temple (house) there - cf. Beth Shemesh etc. Accordingly the literal version, House of Bread, has been put down as folk etymology. Divine names can be found to fit the bill; e.g., Lahmu and Lahamu mentioned in the Babylonian creation epic as offspring of Apsu and Tiamat (v. Staples, AJSL 52, 149—50). Since, however, the name as generally understood is so apt for an agricultural fertility cult centre, it is possible that the question has not been fully probed (cf. Interpreters' Bible Vol. 2, 853). |s2cid=170130221}}</ref> Accordingly, one longstanding suggestion in scholarship is that the name Bethlehem derives from the [[Mesopotamian myths| Mesopotamian]] or [[Canaanite religion| Canaanite]] fertility god [[Lahmu| Laḫmu]] and his consort sister [[Lahamu]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Bethlehem#etymonline_v_30442 |title=Bethledhem |work=Etymology Online}}</ref> ''lahmo'' being the [[Aramaic| Chaldean]] word for "fertility".<ref name= Losch/><ref name= Mum/> Biblical scholar [[William F. Albright]] believed that this hypothesis, first put forth by {{ill|Otto Schröder|de|Otto Schröder (Assyriologie)}}, was "certainly accurate".{{efn|The explanation of Bet-leḥem as the "House of (the god) Lahmu" is due to Otto Schröder, OLZ, 1915, pp. 294 f. This explanation is certainly correct [...]{{sfn|Albright|1936}}}} Albright noted that the pronunciation of the name had remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, even if the perceived meaning had shifted over time: "'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], 'House of Meat' in Arabic."{{sfn|Albright|1936}} While Schröder's theory is not widely accepted,<ref name= CIIP/> it continues to find favour in academic literature over the later literal translations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wasilewski |first=E. |date=2016 |title=Pastoral exhortations – a key to preliminary homiletic research |journal=The Biblical and Liturgical Movement |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=125–142 |doi=10.21906/rbl.187|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==="House of war"===
Another suggestion is an association with the root ''l-h-m'' "to fight", leading to the meaning of "house of war" or "house of fighting", but this is thought unlikely.<ref name= CIIP/>{{why|date=February 2023}}

==History==
===Canaanite period===
The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the [[Amarna letters|Amarna correspondence]] ({{circa|1400&nbsp;BCE}}). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, [[Abdi-Heba]], the Egyptian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking ''Bit-Laḫmi'' in the wake of disturbances by [[Habiru |Apiru]] mercenaries:<ref name= OX>"''Oxford Archeological Guides: The Holy Land''", [[Jerome Murphy-O'Connor]], pp. 198–199, Oxford University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-19-288013-0}}</ref> "Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!"

It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that it was originally a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals.<ref name="IDHP4">"''International Dictionary of Historic Places: Vol 4, Middle East and Africa''", Trudy Ring, K.A Berney, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger, p. 133, Taylor & Francis, 1996, {{ISBN|978-1-884964-03-9}}.</ref> ''[[Lahmu|Laḫmu]]'' was the [[Mesopotamian mythology|Akkadian]] god of fertility,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible |publisher=Wm. A. Eerdmans |author=Losch, Richard R. |year=2005 |page=51}}</ref> worshipped by the [[Canaan#In Jewish and Christian scriptures|Canaanites]] as ''Leḥem''.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}} Some time in the third millennium BCE, Canaanites erected a temple on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity, probably dedicated to [[Lahmu|Laḫmu]]. The temple, and subsequently the town that formed around it, was then known as ''Beit Lahama'', "House (Temple) of Lahmu".{{cn|date=May 2024}} By [[1200s BC (decade)|1200 BC]], the area of Bethlehem, as well as much of the [[Palestine (region)|region]], was conquered by the [[Philistines]], which led the region to be known to the Greeks as "''Philistia''", later corrupted to "[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]".<ref name="Loschp51">{{cite book|author=Losch, Richard R.|title=The uttermost part of the earth: a guide to places in the Bible|page=51|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|year=2005|edition=Illustrated|isbn=978-0-8028-2805-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=January 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122131920/https://books.google.com/books?id=S5GJaakRvPgC&pg=PA51|url-status=live}}</ref>

A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian–Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 BCE and 650 BCE. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/53939-ancient-burial-ground-found-near-bethlehem.html|title=Ancient Burial Ground with 100 Tombs Found Near Biblical Bethlehem|website=LiveScience.com|date=March 4, 2016|access-date=March 7, 2016|archive-date=March 7, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307164013/http://www.livescience.com/53939-ancient-burial-ground-found-near-bethlehem.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Israelite and Judean period===
Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the [[City of David (historic)|City of David]] in the form of a ''[[Bulla (seal)|bulla]]'' (seal impression in dried clay) in [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet|ancient Hebrew script]] that reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King." According to the excavators, it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1938&module_id=#as|title=Israel Antiquities Authority|website=antiquities.org.il|access-date=May 23, 2012|archive-date=May 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527123200/http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=25&subj_id=240&id=1938&module_id=#as|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Schnorr_von_Carolsfeld_Bibel_in_Bildern_1860_106.png|thumb|David, pouring out water drawn from the well of Bethlehem in this 1860 woodcut by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]], which illustrates [[s:Bible (King James)/2 Samuel#23:15|2 Samuel 23:15–17]]|left]]

[[Biblical studies|Biblical scholars]] believe Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" of [[Judea]], may be the same as the Biblical [[Ephrath]],<ref>{{bibleverse||Gen.|35:16}}, {{bibleverse||Gen.|48:7}}, {{bibleverse||Ruth|4:11}}</ref> which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the [[Book of Micah]] as Bethlehem Ephratah.<ref>{{bibleverse||Micah|5:2}}</ref> The [[Hebrew Bible]] also calls it Beth-Lehem [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]],<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Sam|17:12}}</ref> and the [[New Testament]] describes it as the "City of David".<ref name="qjukjz">{{bibleverse||Luke|2:4|KJV}}</ref> It is first mentioned in the Bible as the place where the matriarch [[Rachel]] died and was buried "by the wayside" ({{Bibleverse|Genesis|48:7}}). [[Rachel's Tomb]], the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the [[Book of Ruth]], the valley to the east is where [[Ruth (biblical figure)|Ruth]] of [[Moab]] gleaned the fields and returned to town with [[Naomi (biblical figure)|Naomi]]. In the [[Books of Samuel]], Bethlehem is mentioned as the home of [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]],<ref>{{bibleverse||1Sam|16:1}}</ref> father of King [[David]] of [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]], and the site of David's [[Anointing|anointment]] by the prophet [[Samuel]].<ref>{{bibleverse||1Sam|16:4–13}}</ref> It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of [[Adullam]].<ref>{{bibleverse||2Sam|23:13–17}}</ref>

Writing in the 4th century, the [[Itinerarium Burdigalense|Pilgrim of Bordeaux]] reported that the sepulchers of David, [[Ezekiel]], [[Asaph (biblical figure)|Asaph]], [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]], [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]], and [[Solomon]] were located near Bethlehem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centuryone.com/bordeaux.html |title=The Bordeaux Pilgrim @ |publisher=Centuryone.com|access-date=August 17, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224014259/http://www.centuryone.com/bordeaux.html |archive-date=February 24, 2012}}</ref>

===Classical period===
{{see also|Census of Quirinius}}

[[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' (1622) by the Dutch painter [[Gerard van Honthorst]]. According to the [[Gospel of Matthew|Gospels of Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], [[Jesus]] was born in Bethlehem.<ref name= Brownrigg>{{cite book|last=Brownrigg|first=Ronald |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |chapter=Jesus: The Birth Stories|pages=121–123|publisher=Routledge|date=2002|orig-year=1971|location=New York City, New York and London, England|isbn=978-0-203-01712-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=May 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529123059/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sanders1993">{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E. P.|author-link=E. P. Sanders|date=1993|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|location=London, England, New York City, New York, Ringwood, Australia, Toronto, Ontario, and Auckland, New Zealand|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-014499-4|pages=85–88}}</ref><ref name="Casey2010">{{cite book|last=Casey|first=Maurice|author-link=Maurice Casey|title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching|pages=145–158|publisher=T & T Clark|date=2010|location=New York City, New York and London, England|isbn=978-0-567-64517-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC&pg=PA194|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=May 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529123059/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC&pg=PA194|url-status=live}}</ref>|left]]

The [[Gospel of Matthew]] Matthew 1:18–2:23<ref>{{bibleverse-nb|Matthew|1:18–2:23|9}}</ref> and the [[Gospel of Luke]] Luke 2:1–39<ref>{{bibleverse-nb|Luke|2:1–39|9}}</ref> represent [[Jesus]] as having been born in Bethlehem,<ref name= Brownrigg/><ref name="Sanders1993" /><ref name="Casey2010" /> known at the time as [[wikt:בית לחמא|בית לחמא]] (Beit Lachma) in Aramaic, meaning "House of Bread". Modern scholars, however, regard the two accounts as contradictory<ref name="Sanders1993" /><ref name="Casey2010" /> and the [[Gospel of Mark]], the earliest gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came from [[Nazareth]].<ref name="Casey2010" /> Current scholars are divided on the actual birthplace of Jesus: some believe he was actually born in Nazareth,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dd1XAAAAYAAJ|title=The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke|date=1999|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-49447-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Meier|first=John P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zODYAAAAMAAJ|title=A Marginal Jew: The roots of the problem and the person|date=1991|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-26425-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjmCwAAQBAJ|title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512474-3|language=en}}</ref> while others still hold that he was born in Bethlehem.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Murphy O'Connor|first=Jerome|date=2015-08-24|title=Bethlehem…Of Course|url=https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/16/1/14|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-17|website=[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815030904/https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/16/1/14|archive-date=August 15, 2020}}</ref>

Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem was prominent in the early church.<ref name= Brownrigg/> In around 155, the apologist [[Justin Martyr]] recommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit the very cave where he was supposed to have been born.<ref name= Brownrigg/> The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphal [[Gospel of James]] and the fourth-century church historian [[Eusebius]].<ref name= Brownrigg/> After the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] ({{circa}} 132–136 CE) was crushed, the Roman emperor [[Hadrian]] converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] god [[Adonis]], to honour his favourite, the Greek youth [[Antinous]].<ref name="Giuseppe Ricciotti 1948 p. 276">Giuseppe Ricciotti, ''Vita di Gesù Cristo,'' Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana (1948) p. 276 n.</ref><ref>Maier, Paul L., "The First Christmas: The True and Unfamiliar Story." 2001</ref>

In around 395 CE, the [[Church Fathers|Church Father]] [[Jerome]] wrote in a letter: "Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove of [[Dumuzid|Tammuz]], that is to say, [[Adonis]], and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] was lamented."<ref name="Taylor1993">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Joan E.|title=Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins|pages=96–97|date=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-814785-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWAXbCNxH6YC&pg=PA96|access-date=October 14, 2020|archive-date=May 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529123100/https://books.google.com/books?id=KWAXbCNxH6YC&pg=PA96|url-status=live}}</ref> Many scholars have taken this letter as evidence that the cave of the nativity over which the [[Church of the Nativity]] was later built had at one point been a shrine to the ancient Near Eastern fertility god Tammuz.<ref name="Taylor1993" /><ref>Marcello Craveri, ''The Life of Jesus'', Grove Press (1967) pp. 35–36</ref> Eusebius, however, mentions nothing about the cave having been associated with Tammuz<ref name="Taylor1993" /> and there are no other Patristic sources that suggest Tammuz had a shrine in Bethlehem.<ref name="Taylor1993" /> Peter Welten has argued that the cave was never dedicated to Tammuz<ref name="Taylor1993" /> and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over the [[Massacre of the Innocents]] as a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death.<ref name="Taylor1993" /> Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so naïve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz.<ref name="Taylor1993" />

In 326–328, the empress [[Helena (empress)| Helena]], widowed [[queen consort|consort]] of Emperor [[Constantius Chlorus]] and mother of the ruling emperor, [[Constantine the Great]], made a pilgrimage to Syria-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem.<ref name= BMH/><ref name= Brownrigg/> The [[Church of the Nativity]] was built at her initiative over the cave where Jesus was purported to have been born.<ref name= Brownrigg/> During the [[Samaritan Revolts| Samaritan revolt]] of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor [[Justinian I]].<ref name= BMH/><ref name= Brownrigg/> In 614, the [[Sasanian Empire|Persian Sassanid Empire]], supported by [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius|Jewish rebels]], invaded [[Palaestina Prima|Palestina Prima]] and captured Bethlehem.{{sfn|Klein|2018|page=234}} A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the [[magi]] depicted in [[Persian art|Persian]] clothing in a mosaic.{{sfn|Russell|1991|pages=523–528}}<ref name= BMH/>

===Middle Ages===
[[File:1698 de Bruijin View of Bethlehem, Palestine (Israel, Holy Land) - Geographicus - Bethlehem-bruijn-1698.jpg|thumb|right|1698 sketch by [[Cornelis de Bruijn]]]]

In 637, shortly after [[Siege of Jerusalem (637)|Jerusalem was captured]] by the [[Rashidun army|Muslim armies]], [[Umar|'Umar ibn al-Khattāb]], the second [[Caliphate|Caliph]], promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.<ref name= BMH/> A [[Mosque of Omar (Bethlehem)|mosque]] dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.<ref name="ATT">{{cite web
|url=http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/mosque_of_omar.html
|title=Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem
|publisher=Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency
|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729223029/http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/mosque_of_omar.html
|archive-date=July 29, 2013
}}</ref> Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] in the 8th century, then the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] in the 9th century. A [[Persian people|Persian]] geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the [[Arabs|Arab]] geographer [[al-Muqaddasi]] visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round."<ref>le Strange, 1890, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/298/mode/1up 298]–300.</ref> In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity
|title=Church of the Nativity – Bethlehem
|location=Bethlehem, West Bank, Israel
|publisher=Sacred-destinations.com
|access-date=October 29, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140216143054/http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity|archive-date=February 16, 2014}}</ref>

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the [[First Crusade|Crusaders]], who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] clergy were removed from their [[Episcopal see|sees]] and replaced with [[Catholic Church|Latin]] clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], first king of the Frankish [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.<ref name= BMH/>

In 1187, [[Saladin]], the Sultan of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] who led the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Muslim Ayyubids]], captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.<ref name= BMH/> [[William IV, Count of Nevers]] had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of [[Clamecy, Nièvre|Clamecy]] in present-day [[Burgundy]], France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous '[[Titular see|in partibus infidelium]]' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the [[French Revolution]] in 1789.<ref>de Sivry, L: "Dictionnaire de Géographie Ecclésiastique", p. 375., 1852 ed, from ecclesiastical record of letters between the Bishops of Bethlehem 'in partibus' to the bishops of Auxerre.</ref>

Bethlehem, along with Jerusalem, [[Nazareth]], and [[Sidon]], was briefly ceded to the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] by a treaty between [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and Ayyubid Sultan [[al-Kamil]] in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.<ref>Paul Reed, 2000, p. 206.</ref> In 1250, with the coming to power of the [[Mamluk]]s under [[Baibars|Rukn al-Din Baibars]], tolerance of Christianity declined. Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]].<ref name= BMH/>

===Ottoman era===
[[File:Bethlehem Polenov.jpg|thumb|right|A painting of Bethlehem by [[Vasily Polenov]], 1882]]
[[File:Bethlehem 1898.jpg|thumb|View of Bethlehem, Christmas Day 1898|left]]

From 1517, during the years of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]].<ref name= BMH/> By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters.<ref name="Singer"/> The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period.<ref>Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA33 33] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA33 |date=December 31, 2015 }}</ref> The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 [[Akçe|akce]].<ref name="Petersen141">Petersen, 2005, p. 141.</ref>

Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).<ref>Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA84 84] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA84 |date=December 31, 2015 }}</ref>

From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|Muhammad Ali Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]]. During this period, the town suffered [[Galilee earthquake of 1837|an earthquake]] as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], during the [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine]].<ref>Thomson, 1860, p. 647.</ref> In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, [[Conscription|compulsory military service]], and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to [[South America]].<ref name= BMH/> An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water limited the town's growth.<ref>W. M. Thomson, p. 647.</ref>

[[Albert Socin|Socin]] found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bethlehem had a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 "Latins" in 256 houses, 824 "Greeks" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses. The population count only included men.<ref>Socin, 1879, p. [https://archive.org/stream/zeitschriftdesde01deut#page/146/mode/1up 146]</ref> [[Martin Hartmann|Hartmann]] found that Bethlehem had 520 houses.<ref>Hartmann, 1883, p. [https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ#page/n932/mode/1up 124]</ref>

===Modern era===
[[File:AN AERIAL PHOTO OF THE CITY BETHLEHEM. צילום אויר של העיר בית לחם.D332-057.jpg|thumb|Bethlehem 1937]]
[[File:2018 OCHA OpT map Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|left|2018 [[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|United Nations]] map of the area, showing the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Israeli occupation]] arrangements.]]
[[File:Palestine stamp.jpg|thumb|1927 stamp from the [[Mandatory Palestine]] period, showcasing [[Rachel's Tomb]] (or Bilal bin Rabah Mosque) in Bethlehem]]
Bethlehem was part of [[Mandatory Palestine]] from 1920 to 1948.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63429/Bethlehem Bethlehem]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172813/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63429/Bethlehem |date=October 14, 2013}}</ref> In the [[United Nations General Assembly]]'s [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|1947 resolution to partition Palestine]], Bethlehem was included in the [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|international enclave of Jerusalem]] to be administered by the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imeu.net/news/article00125.shtml|title=IMEU: Maps: 2.7 – Jerusalem and the Corpus Separatum proposed in 1947
|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729204009/http://imeu.net/news/article00125.shtml|archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> [[Jordan]] captured the city during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>[http://www.insideout.org/documentaries/jerusalem/land/timeline2.html A Jerusalem Timeline, 3,000 Years of The City's History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109171903/http://www.insideout.org/documentaries/jerusalem/land/timeline2.html |date=January 9, 2009}} (2001–02) [[NPR|National Public Radio]] and [[BBC News]].</ref> Many refugees from areas captured by [[Israel]]i forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of [['Azza]] (Beit Jibrin) and [[Aida Camp|'Aida]] in the north and [[Dheisheh]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.ps/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113114509/http://www.bethlehem.ps/about/ |archive-date=November 13, 2007 |title=About Bethlehem |url-status=dead |access-date=June 1, 2016}} The Centre for [[Cultural heritage|Cultural Heritage]] Preservation via Bethlehem.ps.</ref> The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.<ref>[http://www.bethlehem.ps/facts/population.php Population in the Bethlehem District]{{dead link|date=March 2016}} Bethlehem.ps. {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref>

Jordan retained control of the city until the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the [[West Bank]]. Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city.

[[File:Die Mauer von Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|[[Israeli West Bank barrier]] in Bethlehem in 2012|left]]

During the early months of [[First Intifada]], on 5 May 1989, Milad Anton Shahin, aged 12, was shot dead by [[Israeli army|Israeli soldiers]]. Replying to a Member of [[Knesset]] in August 1990 Defence Minister [[Yitzak Rabin]] stated that a group of reservists in an observation post had come under attack by stone throwers. The commander of the post, a senior non-commissioned officer, fired two [[plastic bullets]] in deviation of operational rules. No evidence was found that this caused the boy's death. The officer was found guilty of illegal use of a weapon and sentenced to 5 months imprisonment, two of them actually in prison doing public service. He was also demoted.<ref>Talmor, Ronny (translated by Ralph Mandel) (1990) ''The Use of Firearms - By the Security Forces in the Occupied Territories''. [[B'Tselem]]. [https://www.btselem.org/sites/default/files2/publication/199007_use_of_firearms_eng.doc download] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914221355/http://www.btselem.org/sites/default/files2/publication/199007_use_of_firearms_eng.doc |date=September 14, 2014}} p. 75 MK [[Yair Tsaban]] to defence ministers [[Yitzhak Rabin]] & [[Yitzhak Shamir]] p.81 Rabin's reply</ref>

On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.passia.org/palestine_facts/chronology/19941995.htm|title=Palestine Facts Timeline: 1994–1995 |publisher=[[Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs]]|access-date=March 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729174648/http://www.passia.org/palestine_facts/chronology/19941995.htm|archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> and three days later the city came under the administration and military control of the [[Palestinian National Authority]] in accordance with the [[Oslo II Accord|Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/seasons_greetings/bethlehem_celebration/|title=Muslims, Christians celebrate in Bethlehem|first=Jerrold|last=Kessel |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=December 24, 1995|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731210658/http://www.cnn.com/EVENTS/seasons_greetings/bethlehem_celebration/ |archive-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> When the Palestinian Authority assumed control in 1995, it publicly extended the boundaries of Bethlehem, allegedly to secure a Muslim majority.<ref name= AK>{{Cite news |last1=Klein |first1=Aaron |last2=Daily |first2=World Net |date=2005-12-27 |title='Muslims persecuting Bethlehem's Christians' |language=en |work=Ynetnews |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3190798,00.html |access-date=2023-12-07}}</ref> This expansion incorporated over 30,000 Muslims from nearby refugee camps into the city.<ref name= AK/> Yasser Arafat, then the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), unilaterally replaced the predominantly Christian city council with a leadership that was largely Muslim.<ref name= AK/> During the [[Second Intifada|Second Palestinian Intifada]] in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and [[tourism]] industry were damaged.<ref name="OCHA">{{cite web|title=Costs of Conflict: The Changing Face of Bethlehem |publisher=United Nations |author=Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) & Office of the Special Coordinator for the Peace Process in the Middle East |date=December 2004 |url=http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2004/Beth_Rep_Dec04_En.pdf |access-date=July 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729131103/http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2004/Beth_Rep_Dec04_En.pdf |archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm |title=Better times return to Bethlehem |agency=[[BBC News]] |date=December 22, 2007 |access-date=January 22, 2008|first=Martin |last=Patience|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106191329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm |archive-date=January 6, 2014}}</ref> In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in [[Operation Defensive Shield]], a major military counteroffensive by the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli Defense Forces]] (IDF).<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1916580.stm |title=Vatican outrage over church siege |agency=[[BBC News]] |date=April 8, 2002 |access-date=March 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109192256/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1916580.stm|archive-date=January 9, 2014}}</ref> The IDF [[Siege of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem|besieged the Church of the Nativity]], where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the militants to foreign countries.<ref name="siege timeline">{{cite news|title=Chronology of the Siege |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/siege/etc/cron.html |publisher=PBS |work=Frontline |access-date=December 26, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227111530/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/siege/etc/cron.html|archive-date=December 27, 2013}}</ref>

Today, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]], leaving the inhabitants squeezed between thirty-seven Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live; the gap between the two roads is closed by the 8-metre high [[Israeli West Bank barrier]], which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem.<ref>Nicholas Blincoe, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/2014/08/14/nicholas-blincoe/phantom-bids 'Phantom Bids,'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109181210/https://www.lrb.co.uk/2014/08/14/nicholas-blincoe/phantom-bids |date=January 9, 2018}} ''[[London Review of Books]]'', August 14, 2014</ref> In 2002 the Church of Nativity was broken into by 200 militiamen who held priests and nuns hostages and plundered the church's coffers, it was subsequently sieged by Israeli forces until a deal was reached.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Vatican and the Standoff at the Church of the Nativity - Sergio Minerbi |url=https://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp515.htm |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=www.jcpa.org |archive-date=December 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207182003/https://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp515.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-04-01 |title=This Week in History: Church of the Nativity siege |url=https://www.jpost.com/features/in-thespotlight/this-week-in-history-church-of-the-nativity-siege |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:The walled off hotel outlook.jpg|thumb|upright|[[The Walled Off Hotel]], owned and decorated by [[Banksy]]]]Christian families that have lived in Bethlehem for hundreds of years are being forced to leave as land in Bethlehem is seized, and homes bulldozed, for construction of thousands of new Israeli homes.<ref name= Plp/> Land seizures for Israeli settlements have also prevented construction of a new hospital for the inhabitants of Bethlehem, as well as the barrier separating dozens of Palestinian families from their farmland and Christian communities from their places of worship.<ref name= Plp/> Christians have reportedly suffered persecution under the Palestinian Authority, leading to emigration.<ref name= AK/>/><ref>{{Cite web |last=CNEWA |date=2002-01-23 |title=Christian Emigration Report: Palestine |url=https://cnewa.org/christian-emigration-report-palestine/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=CNEWA |language=en-US |quote=Selected accounts of Christians expressing feelings of intimidation/persecution due to rise in Muslim extremism: Muslims refusing to hire Christian workers or to sell property to Christians Christian women describe increasing harassment from Muslim men.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Meotti |first=Giulio |date=2012-04-28 |title=Bethlehem's last Christians? |language=en |work=Ynetnews |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4221651,00.html |access-date=2023-12-07}}</ref> According to [[International Christian Concern]], there are reports of Christians suffering sexual harassments, kidnappings, forced marriages, extortion and murder of converts by Muslims and PA officials.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2008-09-15 |title=Muslims Continue Pushing Christians Out of Bethlehem |url=https://www.persecution.org/2008/09/15/muslims-continue-pushing-christians-out-of-bethlehem/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=International Christian Concern |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Palestinian Crimes against Christian Arabs and Their Manipulation against Israel |url=https://jcpa.org/article/palestinian-crimes-against-christian-arabs-and-their-manipulation-against-israel/ |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Bethléem résidence.JPG|thumb|Residence of the [[Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Betharram]], 2008|left]]

Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about {{convert|775|m|ft|sp=us}} [[Metres above sea level|above sea level]], {{convert|30|m|ft|sp=us}} higher than nearby [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnic.gov.ps/english/tourism/tour7.html#file2|title=Tourism In Bethlehem Governorate|website=Palestinian National Information Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230045307/http://www.pnic.gov.ps/english/tourism/tour7.html |archive-date=December 30, 2007}}</ref> Bethlehem is situated on the [[Judaean Mountains|Judean Mountains]].

The city is located {{convert|73|km|mi|sp=us}} northeast of [[Gaza City]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]], {{convert|75|km|mi|sp=us}} west of [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], {{convert|59|km|mi|sp=us}} southeast of [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]] and {{convert|10|km|mi|0|sp=us}} south of Jerusalem.<ref>[http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/distanceresult.html?p1=1048&p2=676 Distance from Bethlehem to Tel Aviv] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106234136/https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/distanceresult.html?p1=1048&p2=676 |date=November 6, 2018}}, [http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/distanceresult.html?p1=1048&p2=702 Distance from Bethlehem to Gaza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106234310/https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/distanceresult.html?p1=1048&p2=702 |date=November 6, 2018}} Time and Date AS / Steffen Thorsen.</ref> Nearby cities and towns include [[Beit Safafa]] and Jerusalem to the north, [[Beit Jala]] to the northwest, [[Husan]] to the west, [[Al-Khader|al-Khadr]] and [[Artas, Bethlehem|Artas]] to the southwest, and [[Beit Sahour]] to the east. Beit Jala and the latter form an [[Urban agglomeration|agglomeration]] with Bethlehem. The [[Aida Camp|Aida]] and [['Azza|Azza]] refugee camps are located within the city limits.<ref>[[:File:Thameenmap3.jpg|Detailed map of the West Bank]].</ref>

In the center of Bethlehem is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh—the only Muslim quarter.<ref name="BPS">[http://www.bethlehem.ps/cultural_sites/towns_in_bethlehem/7.php Bethlehem's Quarters]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab [[Ghassanids|Ghassanid]] clans that settled there.<ref>[http://www.med-voices.org/pages/showresource.aspx?id=1206&lang=0 Clans −2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019123102/http://www.med-voices.org/pages/showresource.aspx?id=1206&lang=0 |date=October 19, 2013}} Mediterranean Voices: [[Oral history|Oral History]] and Cultural Practice in Mediterranean Cities</ref> Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by [[Arab Christians|Arab Christian]] emigrants from the nearby town of [[Tuqu']] in the 18th century.<ref name="Zeiter">[http://www.bethlehem.ps/cultural_sites/natural_heritage/tqoa.php Tqoa' area]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} Zeiter, Leila. Centre for Preservation of Culture and History. {{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> There is also a [[Assyrian people|Syriac]] quarter outside of the old city,<ref name="BPS" /> whose inhabitants originate from [[Midyat]] and [[Ömerli, Mardin|Ma'asarte]] in [[Turkey]].<ref>[http://www.stern-von-bethlehem.de/english/bato_eng.html Short Overview of the Bato Family] BatoFamily.com {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The total population of the old city is about 5,000.<ref name="BPS" />

===Climate===
Bethlehem has a [[Mediterranean climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Csa''), with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1&nbsp;to&nbsp;13&nbsp;degree Celsius (33–55&nbsp;°F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (86&nbsp;°F). Bethlehem receives an average of {{convert|700|mm|in|sp=us}} of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.<ref name="BMC">{{cite web
|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/index.php
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128015913/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/index.php
|archive-date=November 28, 2007
|title=Bethlehem City: Climate
|website=Bethlehem Municipality}}</ref>

Bethlehem's average annual relative [[humidity]] is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust ''Khamaseen'' winds from the [[Arabian Desert]], during April, May and mid-June.<ref name="BMC"/>

{{Weather box
|location = Bethlehem
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 12
|Feb high C = 13
|Mar high C = 16
|Apr high C = 22
|May high C = 26
|Jun high C = 28
|Jul high C = 30
|Aug high C = 30
|Sep high C = 28
|Oct high C = 26
|Nov high C = 20
|Dec high C = 14
|Year high C =
|Jan low C = 5
|Feb low C = 5
|Mar low C = 7
|Apr low C = 10
|May low C = 14
|Jun low C = 17
|Jul low C = 19
|Aug low C = 19
|Sep low C = 17
|Oct low C = 15
|Nov low C = 11
|Dec low C = 7
|Year low C =
|Jan rain days = 12
|Feb rain days = 11
|Mar rain days = 9
|Apr rain days = 4
|May rain days = 2
|Jun rain days = 0
|Jul rain days = 0
|Aug rain days = 0
|Sep rain days = 0
|Oct rain days = 3
|Nov rain days = 7
|Dec rain days = 11
|Jan snow days = 1
|Feb snow days = 1
|Mar snow days = 0
|Apr snow days = 0
|May snow days = 0
|Jun snow days = 0
|Jul snow days = 0
|Aug snow days = 0
|Sep snow days = 0
|Oct snow days = 0
|Nov snow days = 0
|Dec snow days = 1
|source 1 = myweather2.com<ref name="weather2">{{cite web|url=http://www.myweather2.com/City-Town/Israel/Bethlehem/climate-profile.aspx?month=1 |title=January Climate History for Bethlehem &#124; Local &#124; Israel |publisher=Myweather2.com |access-date=February 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205154501/http://www.myweather2.com/City-Town/Israel/Bethlehem/climate-profile.aspx?month=1|archive-date=December 5, 2013}}</ref>
|date=February 2012
}}

==Demographics==
===Population===
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;"
|-
! Year
! Population
|-
|1867 ||style="text-align:center;"|3,000–4,000<ref name="Miller"/>
|-
|[[Village Statistics, 1945|1945]] ||style="text-align:center;"|8,820<ref>{{cite web
 |first=Sami
 |last=Hadawi
 |author-link=Sami Hadawi
 |publisher=Palestine Liberation Organization – Research Center
 |title=Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine
 |url=http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Jerusalem/Page-056.jpg
 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20080805000658/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Jerusalem/Page-056.jpg
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-date=August 5, 2008
 |access-date=June 16, 2011
}}</ref><ref name=1945p24>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p24.jpg 24]</ref>
|-
|1961 ||style="text-align:center;"|22,453<ref>Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics, 1964, p. [http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensusPages/JordanCensus1961-p07.pdf 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119060637/http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensusPages/JordanCensus1961-p07.pdf |date=January 19, 2018 }}</ref>
|-
|1983 ||style="text-align:center;"|16,300<ref>Census by [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]</ref>{{Verify source|date=May 2012}}
|-
|1997 ||style="text-align:center;"|21,930<ref name="PCBSCensus">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120111192435/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_pcbs/phc_97/bet_t1.aspx Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years: Bethlehem Governorate] (1997) [[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]]. Retrieved December 23, 2007. {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
|-
|2007 ||style="text-align:center;"|25,266<ref name="PCBSCensus"/>
|-
|2017 ||style="text-align:center;"|28,591<ref name="PrelimCensus2017">{{cite report |date=February 2018 |title=Preliminary Results of the Population, Housing and Establishments Census, 2017 |url=https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Downloads/book2364-1.pdf |department=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]] (PCBS) |publisher=[[State of Palestine]] |pages=64–82 |access-date=2023-10-24}}</ref>
|}
[[File:Mosque of Omar with city.jpg|thumb|[[Mosque of Omar (Bethlehem)|Mosque of Omar]], the [[Lutheranism|Evangelical Lutheran Christmas Church]], and the Salesian Church of the [[Sacred Heart of Jesus]]]]
According to [[Defter|Ottoman tax records]], Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and [[Muslim]] populations became equal by the middle of that century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male taxpayers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the [[jizya]] tax.<ref name="Singer">Singer, 1994, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA80 80] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C&pg=PA80 |date=December 31, 2015 }}</ref> In 1867, an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000, of whom about 100 were [[Protestantism|Protestant]], 300 were Muslim and "the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians."<ref name="Miller">Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. p. 148.</ref> Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims.<ref name="Malet1868">{{cite book|author=William Wyndham Malet|title=The olive leaf: a pilgrimage to Rome, Jerusalem, and Constantinople, in 1867, for the reunion of the faithful|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3IBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA116|access-date=November 9, 2010|year=1868|publisher=T. Bosworth|page=116|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104164636/https://books.google.com/books?id=h3IBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA116|archive-date=November 4, 2013}}</ref> An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6,000 of "principally Christians, Latins and Greeks" with no Jewish inhabitants.<ref name="JewishIntelligenceVol1">'{{cite journal |author=<!--Staff writer(<span class="ltr">s</span>); no by-line.--> |title=Bethlehem |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=uhcFAAAAQAAJ&rdid=book-uhcFAAAAQAAJ&rdot=1 |journal=The Jewish Intelligence |date=January 1885 |page=5 |access-date=October 22, 2014 |archive-date=December 21, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221004753/https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=uhcFAAAAQAAJ&rdid=book-uhcFAAAAQAAJ&rdot=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[1922 census of Palestine|census of 1922]] lists Bethlehem as having 6,658 residents (5,838 Christians, 818 Muslims, and two Jews),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922|title=Palestine Census ( 1922)|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> increasing in [[1931 census of Palestine|1931]] to 6,804 (5,588 Christians, 1,219 Muslims, five with no religion, and two Jews) with 506 in nearby suburbs (251 Muslims, 216 Christians, and 39 Jews).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/palestine-census-1931|title=Palestine Census 1931|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

The 1938 village statistics list the population as 7,520 with 499 in nearby suburbs (including 42 Jews).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VillageStatistics1938orig.pdf |title=Village Statistics |year=1938 |pages=49}}</ref> The [[Village Statistics, 1945|1945 village statistics]] list Bethlehem's population as 8,820 (6,430 Christians, 2,370 Muslims, and 20 "other").<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VillageStatistics1945orig.pdf |title=Village Statistics |year=1945 |pages=24}}</ref>

In 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim.<ref name="AP">{{cite book|author=Andrea Pacini|title=Socio-Political and Community Dynamics of Arab Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Autonomous Palestinian Territories|pages=282|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-829388-0}}</ref> In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of the population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02860.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729042326/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02860.html|url-status=dead|title=Bethlehem|archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2022}}

In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 [[Palestinian refugees|refugees]], accounting for 30.3% of the city's population.<ref name="PCBSCensus"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/_PCBS/census/phc_97/bet_t6.aspx |title=Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status |access-date=January 22, 2008 |publisher=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516122047/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/_PCBS/census/phc_97/bet_t6.aspx |archive-date=May 16, 2012}}</ref> In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20 to 29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45 to 64 and 5.3% above the age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females.<ref name="PCBSCensus"/> In the 2007 PCBS census, Bethlehem had a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females. There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households. The average household consisted of 4.8 family members.<ref name="PCBS07">{{cite web |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_PCBS/Downloads/book1487.pdf |title=2007 PCBS Census |access-date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]] |page=117 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210081942/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_PCBS/Downloads/book1487.pdf |archive-date=December 10, 2010}}</ref> By 2017, the population was 28,591.<ref name="PrelimCensus2017" />

===Christian population===
{{See also|Palestinian Christians}}
[[File:Bethlehem4.jpg|thumb|upright|Four Bethlehemi Christian women, 1911|left|266x266px]]

After the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]] in the 630s, the local Christians were [[Arabization|Arabized]] even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans.<ref name="beth">[http://www.bethlehem-holyland.net/Adnan/bethlehem/beth-hlccni.htm Bethlehem, The Holy Land's Collective Cultural National Identity: A Palestinian Arab Historical Perspective] Musallam, Adnan. [[Bethlehem University]]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019141809/http://www.bethlehem-holyland.net/Adnan/bethlehem/beth-hlccni.htm |date=October 19, 2013 }}</ref> Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh.<ref name="beth"/> The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from [[Yemen]] and from the [[Wadi Musa]] area in present-day [[Jordan]] and an-Najajreh descend from [[Najran]].<ref name="beth"/> Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids.<ref name="beth"/>

The percentage of Christians in the town has been in a steady decline since the mid-twentieth century.<ref name="AP"/><ref name="Malek2017"/><ref name="Lidman2016"/><ref name="O'Connor2013">{{cite news |last1=O'Connor |first1=Anne-Marie |title=Little Palestinian town of Bethlehem wants its tourists, Christian residents to come back |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/little-palestinian-town-of-bethlehem-wants-its-tourists-christian-residents-to-come-back/2013/12/21/dac0d310-65b3-11e3-997b-9213b17dac97_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |agency=The Washington Post |publisher=The Washington Post Company LLC |date=December 21, 2013 |access-date=August 25, 2018 |archive-date=October 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002141912/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/little-palestinian-town-of-bethlehem-wants-its-tourists-christian-residents-to-come-back/2013/12/21/dac0d310-65b3-11e3-997b-9213b17dac97_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998, the figure had declined to 40%.<ref name="AP"/><ref name="Malek2017">{{cite news |last1=Malek |first1=Cate |title=Bethlehem is Struggling to Protect the Church of the Nativity |url=https://www.newsweek.com/bethlehem-easter-church-nativity-jesus-israel-palestinians-war-christians-584908 |work=Newsweek |publisher=[[The Newsweek Daily Beast Company]] |date=April 4, 2017 |access-date=August 25, 2018 |archive-date=February 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229181951/https://www.newsweek.com/bethlehem-easter-church-nativity-jesus-israel-palestinians-war-christians-584908 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2005, the [[mayor of Bethlehem]], [[Victor Batarseh]], explained that "due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority."<ref name="VOA">{{cite news|title=Christians Disappearing in the Birthplace of Jesus|author=Jim Teeple|publisher=Voice of America|date=December 24, 2005|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-12/2005-12-24-voa17.cfm?CFID=43253380&CFTOKEN=44091067|archive-url=https://archive.today/20080505012318/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-12/2005-12-24-voa17.cfm?CFID=43253380&CFTOKEN=44091067|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 5, 2008|access-date=July 22, 2009}}</ref> The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the [[Preventive Security Force|Preventive Security Service]] and militant factions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp490.htm|publisher=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]]|title=The Beleaguered Christians of the Palestinian-Controlled Areas: Official PA Domination of Christians|first=David|last=Raab|date=January 5, 2003|access-date=July 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818233943/http://jcpa.org/jl/vp490.htm|archive-date=August 18, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shragai|first1=Nadav|title=Why are Christians leaving Bethlehem?|journal=Yisrael HaYom|date=December 26, 2012|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=6865|access-date=October 15, 2016|archive-date=November 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121204432/http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=6865|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2006, a [[John Zogby|Zogby]] poll that interviewed more than 1,000 Palestinian Christians from Bethlehem found that 79% of the respondents cited the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Israeli occupation]] as source of difficulties leading the emigration of their community.<ref name="AJ1">{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2008/5/14/bethlehem-strained-under-occupation|title=Bethlehem strained under occupation|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=11 December 2023|date=14 May 2008|quote=A Zogby International poll in 2006 interviewing 1,000 Palestinians from Bethlehem showed that 79 per cent of respondents believed the difficulties of living under occupation are the reason for Christians leaving Palestine.}}</ref> In the same year, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade.<ref>{{cite web|title=Americans not sure where Bethlehem is, survey shows|publisher=[[Christian Church|Ekklesia]]|date=December 20, 2006|access-date=May 7, 2007|url=http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/content/news_syndication/article_061220bethlehem.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203015857/http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/content/news_syndication/article_061220bethlehem.shtml|archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref> The only mosque in the Old City is the [[Mosque of Omar (Bethlehem)|Mosque of Omar]], located in the Manger Square.<ref name="ATT"/> By 2016, the Christian population of Bethlehem had declined to only 16%.<ref name="Lidman2016"/> The Christian population's proportion of Bethlehem fell from 87% in the 1950s to 12% in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=LIDMAN |first=MELANIE |date=24 December 2016 |title=Christians worry 'Silent Night' may soon refer to their community in Bethlehem |work=[[Times of Israel]] |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/christians-worry-silent-night-may-soon-refer-to-their-community-in-bethlehem/}}</ref>

A study by [[Pew Research Center]] concluded that the decline in the Arab Christian population of the area was partially a result of a lower [[birth rate]] among Christians than among Muslims,<ref name="Lidman2016">{{cite news |last1=Lidman |first1=Melanie |title=Christians Worry 'Silent Night' May Soon Refer to their own Community in Bethlehem |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/christians-worry-silent-night-may-soon-refer-to-their-community-in-bethlehem/ |work=[[The Times of Israel]] |date=December 24, 2016 |access-date=August 25, 2018 |archive-date=April 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423104455/https://www.timesofisrael.com/christians-worry-silent-night-may-soon-refer-to-their-community-in-bethlehem/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Connor">{{cite web |last1=Connor |first1=Phillip |last2=Hackett |first2=Conrad |date=May 19, 2014 |title=Middle East's Christian population in flux as Pope Francis visits Holy Land |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/05/19/middle-easts-christian-population-in-flux-as-pope-francis-visits-holy-land/ |website=pewresearch.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=August 25, 2018 |archive-date=February 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202011348/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/05/19/middle-easts-christian-population-in-flux-as-pope-francis-visits-holy-land/ |url-status=live }}</ref> but also partially due to the fact that Christians were more likely to emigrate from the region than any other religious group.<ref name="Lidman2016"/><ref name="Connor"/> The seizure of Christian land by Muslim mafias and the bias of the Palestinian Judicial system have been cited as reasons leading to emigration.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-12-21 |title=Is Christianity dying in Bethlehem? |url=https://www.jpost.com/local-israel/in-jerusalem/is-christianity-dying-in-bethlehem |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en-US}}</ref>  Amon Ramnon, a researcher at the [[Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research]], stated that the reason why more Christians were emigrating than Muslims is because it is easier for Arab Christians to integrate into western communities than for Arab Muslims, since many of them attend church-affiliated schools, where they are taught European languages.<ref name="Lidman2016"/> A higher percentage of Christians in the region are urban-dwellers, which also makes it easier for them to emigrate and assimilate into western populations.<ref name="Lidman2016"/> A [[statistics|statistical analysis]] of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to the Christians' [[middle class|middle-class]] status and [[higher education]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Palestinian Christianity – A Study in Religion and Politics|journal=International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church|date=July 2005|first=Leonard|last=Marsh|volume=57|issue=7|pages=147–66|doi=10.1080/14742250500220228|s2cid=143729196}}</ref> Since the [[Second Intifada]], 10% of the Christian population have left the city.<ref name="VOA"/> However, it is likely that there are many other factors, most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation |title=Report on Christian Emigration: Palestine |url=http://www.hcef.org/component/content/article/106-report-on-christian-emigration-palestine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720121812/http://www.hcef.org/component/content/article/106-report-on-christian-emigration-palestine |archive-date=July 20, 2014}}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Heading to Bethlehem Gloria in Excelsis Deo by ArmAg (<span class="ltr">1</span>).jpg|left|thumb|High-rise construction in Bethlehem]]
Shopping is a major attraction, especially during the [[Christmas]] season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling [[Palestinian handicrafts]], [[Middle East]]ern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as [[baklava|baklawa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/Shopping.php |title=Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction) |access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226054520/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/GeneralInfo/Shopping.php |archive-date=February 26, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> Olive [[wood carving]]s <ref name="BethTour">{{cite web|url=http://www.travelershub.com/destination_guide/middle_east/bethlehem.html|title=Bethlehem: Shopping|publisher=TouristHub|access-date=July 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730055440/http://www.travelershub.com/destination_guide/middle_east/bethlehem.html|archive-date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem.<ref name="handicrafts">{{cite web|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/Heritage/HnadCraft.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121193814/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/Heritage/HnadCraft.php|archive-date=November 21, 2007|title=Handicrafts: Olive-wood carving|publisher=Bethlehem Municipality}}</ref> Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from [[Nacre|mother-of-pearl]], as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses.<ref name="BethTour"/> Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings.<ref name="ChamberInfo">{{cite web |url=http://bethlehem.ps/bethinfo.html |title=Bethlehem Information |publisher=Bethlehem Chamber of Commerce & Industry|access-date=November 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322194118/http://www.bethlehem.ps/bethinfo.html |archive-date=March 22, 2012}}</ref> Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, [[synthetic rubber]], pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.<ref name="ChamberInfo"/>
[[Cremisan Valley|Cremisan Wine]], founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in the [[al-Khader]] district. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000&nbsp;liters per year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.ps/shopping/wine.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117144242/http://www.bethlehem.ps/shopping/wine.php |archive-date=November 17, 2007 |title=Wine |last=Jahsan |first=Ruby |publisher=The Centre for Cultural Heritage Preservation |access-date=January 29, 2008}}</ref>

In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest [[Palestine Investment Conference|economic conference]] to date in the [[Palestinian territories]]. It was initiated by [[Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian Prime Minister]] and former [[Finance Minister of the Palestinian National Authority|Finance Minister]] [[Salam Fayyad]] to convince more than a thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the [[Middle East]] to invest in the West Bank and [[Gaza Strip]]. A total of 1.4&nbsp;billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7412129.stm Palestinians bidding for business] Maqbool, Aleem. ''[[BBC News]]''. BBC. May 21, 2008. Retrieved on 2008-05-22. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106161839/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7412129.stm |date=January 6, 2014 }}</ref>[[File:The Jacir Palace, Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|[[Jacir Palace]] hotel in Bethlehem]]Tourism is Bethlehem's main industry.<ref name="O'Connor2013" /><ref name="OCHA" /> Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel.<ref name="OCHA" /> More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry.<ref name="CityEconomy">{{cite web|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/index-16.php?Mid=NDg= |title=The City Economy |publisher=Bethlehem Municipality|access-date=November 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023031202/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/index-16.php?Mid=NDg%3D |archive-date=October 23, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2007/12/2008525184727570657.html |title=Bethlehem's struggles continue |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English]] |date=December 25, 2007 |access-date=November 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129060921/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2007/12/2008525184727570657.html |archive-date=January 29, 2014}}</ref> The city has more than two million visitors every year.<ref name="CityEconomy" /> Tourism in Bethlehem ground to a halt for over a decade after the [[Second Intifada]],<ref name="O'Connor2013" /> but gradually began to pick back up in the early 2010s.<ref name="O'Connor2013" /> [[Schneider Electric]] operates a facility in the Multidisciplinary Industrial Park of Bethlehem, which was developed by the Palestinian government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Watch |first=Corporate |date=2013-10-09 |title=Why Bethlehem industrial zone is struggling to find investors |url=https://corporatewatch.org/why-bethlehem-industrial-zone-is-struggling-to-find-investors/ |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=Corporate Watch |language=en-GB}}</ref>
The [[Church of the Nativity]] is one of Bethlehem's major [[tourist attraction]]s and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of the [[Manger Square]] — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus is believed to have been born. Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where [[Jerome|St. Jerome]] spent thirty years creating the [[Vulgate]], the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation.<ref name= BMH/>

There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem.<ref name="Patience">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm|title=Better times return to Bethlehem|last=Patience|first=Martin|date=December 22, 2007|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106191329/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7146980.stm|archive-date=January 6, 2014|publisher=BBC}}</ref> [[Jacir Palace]], built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem.<ref>[http://www.asiatraveltips.com/news05/129-JacirPalace.shtml Jacir Palace, InterContinental Bethlehem re-opens for business] InterContinental Hotels Group {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203051039/http://www.asiatraveltips.com/news05/129-JacirPalace.shtml |date=December 3, 2013 }}</ref> The hotel is managed by world renowned international brand — the [[Intercontinental Hotel Group]] (IHG) and is first IHG hotel in the country.

==Religious significance and commemoration==

===Birthplace of Jesus===
{{further|Church of the Nativity|Nativity of Jesus}}
[[File:Jesus birthplace in Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|right|Silver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition]]
[[File:Christ cradle space, Bethleham.jpeg|thumb|right|Altar of the Magi opposite the Holy Manger, Nativity Grotto]]
[[File:Bethlehem Christmas2.JPG|thumb|upright|Catholic procession on [[Christmas Eve]] 2006]]
[[File:Christmas tree, Bethlehem.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Christmas tree]] in Bethlehem; behind it, the [[Church of the Nativity]], 2014]]

In the [[New Testament]], the [[Gospel of Luke]] says that [[Jesus]]' parents traveled from [[Nazareth]] to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born.<ref name="qjukjz"/> The [[Gospel of Matthew]] mentions Bethlehem as the place of birth,<ref>[[Bart D. Ehrman]], ''[[Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium]]'', Oxford University Press 1999, page 38.</ref> and adds that King Herod was told that a 'King of the Jews' had been born in the town, prompting Herod to order the killing of all the boys who were two years old or under in the town and surrounding area. [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]], warned of Herod's impending action by an [[angel of the Lord]], decided to flee to Egypt with his family and then later settled in Nazareth after Herod's death.

Early Christian traditions describe [[Jesus]] as being born in Bethlehem: in one account, a verse in the [[Book of Micah]] is interpreted as a prophecy that the [[Messiah]] would be born there.<ref>Freed, 2004, p. 77. (citing {{bibleverse||Micah|5:2|KJV}})</ref> The second century [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologist]] [[Justin Martyr]] stated in his ''[[Dialogue with Trypho]]'' (written c. 155–161) that the [[Holy Family]] had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town and then placed Jesus in a manger.<ref>Taylor, 1993, pp.&nbsp;99–100. "Joseph&nbsp;... took up his quarters in a certain cave near the village; and while they were there Mary brought forth the Christ and placed him in a manger, and here the Magi who came from Arabia found him."(Justin Martyr, ''Dialogue with Trypho'', chapter LXXVIII).</ref> [[Origen]] of Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>In Bethlehem the cave is pointed out where he was born, and the manger in the cave where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes. And the rumor is in those places, and among foreigners of the Faith, that indeed Jesus was born in this cave who is worshipped and reverenced by the Christians. (Origen, ''[[Contra Celsum]]'', book I, chapter LI).</ref> This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of [[Tammuz (deity)|Tammuz]].<ref>Taylor, 1993, pp. 96–104./ref>

Many modern scholars question the idea that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David.ref>Vermes, 2006, p. 22.</ref><ref>Sanders, 1993, p. 85.</ref><ref>Crossan and Watts, p.&nbsp;19.</ref><ref>Dunn, 2003, pp.&nbsp;344–345.</ref><ref>Marcus J. Borg, ''Meeting Jesus for the First Time'' (Harper San Francisco, 1995) page&nbsp;22–23.</ref> The [[Gospel of Mark]] and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative, but refer to him only as being from Nazareth.<ref>Mills and Bullard, 1990, pp.&nbsp;445–446. See [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+6:1-4 Mark 6:1–4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130205521/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark+6:1-4 |date=November 30, 2011 }}; and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+1:46 John 1:46] .</ref> In a 2005 article in ''[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]'' magazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born, and postulates that Jesus was born in [[Bethlehem of Galilee]].<ref>Aviram Oshri, "Where was Jesus Born?", ''Archaeology'', Volume 58 Number 6, November/December 2005.</ref> However, other archaeologists argue that there is evidence that Bethlehem of Judea was inhabited at that time.<ref>{{cite journal |title=New archaeological features in Bethlehem (Palestine): the Italian-Palestinian rescue season of 2016 |journal=Vicino Oriente |last1=Nigro |first1=Lorenzo |volume=21 |pages=5–57 |last2=Montanari |first2=Daria |doi=10.53131/VO2724-587X2017_2 |year=2017 |issn=2724-587X |last3=Guari |first3=Alessandra |last4=Tamburrini |first4=Maria |last5=Izzo |first5=Pierfrancesco |last6=Ghayyada |first6=Mohammed |last7=Titi |first7=Iman |last8=Yasine |first8=Jehad|doi-access=free |hdl=11573/1023455 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{rp|6–10}} In a 2011 article in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' magazine, [[Jerome Murphy-O'Connor]] argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090310091422/http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/nativity-03.asp Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, ''Bethlehem&nbsp;... Of Course''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310091422/http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/nativity-03.asp |date=March 10, 2009 }}, Biblical Archaeology Review. ; see also A. Puig i Tàrrech, "The Birth of Jesus and History: The Interweaving of the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke", B. Estrada, E. Manicardi, A. Puig i Tàrrech (ed.), ≤The Gospels, History and Christology. The Search of Joseph Ratzinger≥, Vatican City:LEV, 2013, 353–97.</ref>

===Christmas celebrations===
[[File:Bethlehem Christmas pilgrims enter town 1890.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas pilgrims, 1890]]

Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, but Greek, [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] and [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodox]] Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Orthodox]] Christians on January 19. Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside the [[Church of the Nativity|Basilica of the Nativity]]. Roman Catholic services take place in [[Church of Saint Catherine, Bethlehem|St. Catherine's Church]] and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-christmas.htm |title=Christmas in Bethlehem |publisher=Sacred Destinations |access-date=January 22, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924080353/http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-christmas.htm |archive-date=September 24, 2009}}</ref>

===Other religious festivals===
Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annual [[Saint George's Day|Feast of Saint George]] ([[Khidr|al-Khadr]]) on May 5–6. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of [[al-Khader]] to baptize newborns in the waters around the [[St. George's Monastery, Al-Khader|Monastery of St. George]] and sacrifice a sheep in ritual.<ref>[http://www.bethlehem.ps/religious_sites/feasts/st_george.php St. George's Feast]{{dead link|date=February 2016}} Bethlehem.ps.</ref> The Feast of St. [[Elijah]] is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias, a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem.

==Culture==
===Embroidery===
{{See also|Palestinian costumes}}
[[File:Bethlehem woman edited.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Woman in traditional Bethlehem costume]]

The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear.<ref name="PCA2">{{cite web |title=Palestine costume before 1948: by region |publisher=Palestine Costume Archive |access-date=January 28, 2008 |url=http://www.palestinecostumearchive.org/regional.htm |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020913101705/http%3A//www%2Epalestinecostumearchive%2Eorg/regional%2Ehtm |archive-date= September 13, 2002}}</ref> Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its "strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance."<ref>{{cite book |last=Stillman |first=Yedida Kalfon |title=Palestinian costume and jewelry |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=1979 |location=Albuquerque |pages=46 |isbn=978-0-8263-0490-2}}</ref> Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (''bisht'') from locally woven wool worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short ''taqsireh'' jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket. The taqsireh was made of [[velvet]] or [[broadcloth]], usually with heavy embroidery.<ref name=PCA2/>

Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines. This technique was used for "royal" [[wedding dress]]es (''thob malak''), taqsirehs and the ''shatwehs'' worn by married women. It has been traced by some to [[Byzantium]], and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite. As a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.<ref name=PCA2/><gallery>
File:Bethlehem Dress (Palestinian Thobe).jpg|Bethlehem traditional dress
File:Chest panel from Bethlehem dress (Palestinian Thobe).jpg|Chest panel from Bethlehem dress
File:Embroidery from Bethlehem Dress (Palestinian Thobe).jpg|Embroidery detail
File:Bethlehem Jacket (taqsireh).jpg|''Taqsireh'' jacket embroidered with Palestinian patterns
File:Le musée des traditions populaires (Amman, Jordanie) (24116263437).jpg|''Shatweh'', a headdresses worn by married women
</gallery>

===Mother-of-pearl carving===
{{main|Mother-of-pearl carving in Bethlehem}}
[[File:Workers in mother-of-pearl2.jpg|thumb|Craftsmen working with [[Mother-of-Pearl carving in Bethlehem|mother-of-pearl]], early 20th century]]

The art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by [[Franciscan]] [[friar]]s from [[Italy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.palestine-family.net/index.php?nav=6-207&cid=498&did=2502&pageflip=1 |title=Tourist Products|publisher=Palestine-Family.net |date=January 23, 2007 |access-date=February 18, 2012|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206210408/http://www.palestine-family.net/index.php?nav=6-207&cid=498&did=2502&pageflip=1|archive-date=December 6, 2013}}</ref> A constant stream of [[pilgrim]]s generated a demand for these items, which also provided jobs for women.<ref>Weir, pp. 128, 280, n.30</ref> The industry was noted by [[Richard Pococke]], who visited Bethlehem in 1727.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wY4qAAAAMAAJ ''A Description of the East and Some other Countries''], p. 436</ref>

===Cultural centers and museums===
Bethlehem is home to the [[Palestinian Heritage Center]], established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery, [[Palestinian art|art]] and folklore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.palestinianheritagecenter.com/objectives.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112225031/http://www.palestinianheritagecenter.com/objectives.htm|archive-date=November 12, 2007|title=Palestinian Heritage Center: Objectives}}</ref> The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies and [[Handicraft|arts and crafts]] displays, and training.<ref name="BH"/>
[[File:Inside the PHC.JPG|thumb|Inside of the [[Palestinian Heritage Center]]]]
The Bethlehem branch of [[the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music]] has about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ncm.birzeit.edu/new/page.php?page=branches+ |title=The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music |access-date=January 22, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214165615/http://ncm.birzeit.edu/new/page.php?page=branches |archive-date=February 14, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Bethlehem has several museums: The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 three-dimensional models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus. Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show. The [[Badd Giacaman Museum]], located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of [[olive oil]] production.<ref name="BH"/> [[Baituna al-Talhami Museum]], established in 1972, contains displays of Bethlehem culture.<ref name="BH"/> The International Museum of Nativity was built by [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) to exhibit "high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere".<ref name="BH"/> The [[Palestine Museum of Natural History]] is the first of its kind and is based on Bethlehem University campus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biodiversity and hope flourish at Palestine's first natural history museum |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/biodiversity-and-hope-flourish-palestines-first-natural-history-museum |access-date=2023-11-04 |website=Middle East Eye |language=en}}</ref>

==Local government==
Bethlehem is the ''muhfaza'' (seat) or district capital of the [[Bethlehem Governorate]].

Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after the ''mukhtars'' ("heads") of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding the [[Syriac Quarter]]) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. A [[Basic law|Basic Law]] was established so that if the victor for mayor was a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], his deputy should be of the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] community.<ref name="BME"/>
[[File:Palestinian Government Bureau, Betlehem.jpg|thumb|[[Bethlehem Governorate]] building]]
Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrah [[Bedouin]]s and Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.<ref name="BME">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080813060937/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/TempVewMenuSub.php?Mid=6 Municipal Council Elections during the British and Jordanian Periods] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813060937/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/TempVewMenuSub.php?Mid=6 |date=August 13, 2008 }} Bethlehem Municipal Council.</ref>

There are several branches of political parties on the council, including [[Communism|Communist]], [[Islamism|Islamist]], and secular. The leftist factions of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) such as the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) and the [[Palestinian People's Party]] (PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats. [[Hamas]] gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 [[Palestinian local elections, 2004–2005|Palestinian municipal elections]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Counil/index.php |title=Bethlehem Municipality(Site Under Construction) |access-date=January 22, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118135922/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Counil/index.php |archive-date=January 18, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Mayors===
[[File:Bethlehem-Nativity-207.jpg|thumb|Bethlehem Municipality building in [[Manger Square]]]]
In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah member Vera Baboun won, becoming the first female [[mayor of Bethlehem]].<ref name="kuttabmonitor">{{cite news|last1=Kuttab|first1=Daoud|title=Bethlehem Has New Female Mayor, Yet Same Old Problems|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2012/al-monitor/christmas-bethlehem-palestine.html|access-date=March 17, 2016|work=Al-Monitor|date=December 23, 2012|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212143/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2012/al-monitor/christmas-bethlehem-palestine.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{|
|
* [[Mikhail Abu Saadeh]] – 1876
* [[Khalil Yaqub]] – 1880
* [[Suleiman Jacir]] – 1884
* [[Issa Abdullah Marcus]] – 1888
* [[Yaqub Khalil Elias]] – 1892
* [[Hanna Mansur]] – 1895–1915
* [[Salim Issa al-Batarseh]] – 1916–17
* [[Salah Giries Jaqaman]] – 1917–1921
* [[Musa Qattan]] – 1921–1925
* [[Hanna Ibrahim Miladah]] – 1926–1928
* [[Nicoloa Attalah Shain]] – 1929–1933
|
* [[Hanna Issa al-Qawwas]] – 1936–1946
* [[Issa Basil Bandak]] – 1946–1951
* [[Elias Bandak]] – 1951–1953
* [[Afif Salm Batarseh]] – 1952–53
* [[Elias Bandak]] – 1953–1957
* [[Ayyub Musallam]] – 1958–1962
* [[Elias Bandak]] – 1963–1972
* [[Elias Freij]] – 1972–1997
* [[Hanna Nasser]] – 1997–2005
* [[Victor Batarseh]] 2005–2012<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nablus.org/en/htm/guide/Municipalities.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221063335/http://www.nablus.org/en/htm/guide/Municipalities.htm|archive-date=February 21, 2007|title=Municipalities Info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Mayor/FormerMayors.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227075912/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/Mayor/FormerMayors.php |archive-date=December 27, 2007 |title=Bethlehem Municipality |access-date=January 22, 2008}}</ref>
* [[Vera Baboun]] – 2012–2017<ref name="kuttabmonitor"/>
* [[Anton Salman]] – 2017-2022
* [[Hanna Hanania]] 2022-present
|}

==Education==
[[File:Bethlehem Banksy.jpg|thumb|[[Banksy]] mural in [[Beit Sahour]]]]

According to the [[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]] (PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 in [[primary education|primary school]], 3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_pcbs/phc_97/bet_t3.aspx |title=Palestinian Population (10 Years and Over) by Locality, Sex and Educational Attainment |access-date=January 22, 2008 |publisher=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113214724/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_pcbs/phc_97/bet_t3.aspx |archive-date=November 13, 2010}}</ref> There were 135 schools in the [[Bethlehem Governorate]] in 2006; 100 run the [[Education Minister of the Palestinian National Authority|Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority]], seven by the [[UNRWA|United Nations Relief and Works Agency]] (UNRWA) and 28 were private.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mohe.gov.ps/downloads/pdffiles/statisticE.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014122612/http://www.mohe.gov.ps/downloads/pdffiles/statisticE.pdf |archive-date=October 14, 2006 |title=Statistics about General Education in Palestine 2005–2006 |publisher=[[Education Minister of the Palestinian National Authority]] |access-date=January 22, 2008}}</ref>
[[File:Bethlehem University main building.jpeg|thumb|[[Bethlehem University]] main building]]
Bethlehem is home to [[Bethlehem University]], a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Christian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths. Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when the [[Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools|De La Salle Christian Brothers]] opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem.edu/about/mission-history |title=Mission and History |publisher=[[Bethlehem University]]|access-date=November 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207235951/http://bethlehem.edu/about/mission-history|archive-date=February 7, 2014}}</ref>

==Transportation==
[[File:Bethlehem-street2.JPG|thumb|upright|A street in Bethlehem]]

Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, [[Hebron]], [[Nahalin]], [[Battir]], [[al-Khader]], [[al-Ubeidiya]] and [[Beit Fajjar]]. There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem, [[Tuqu']] and [[Herodium]]. There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/TransSys.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227075741/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/English/City/TransSys.php |archive-date=December 27, 2007 |title=Bethlehem Public Transport System |access-date=January 22, 2008}} Bethlehem Municipality.</ref>

The Israeli construction of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier|West Bank barrier]] has affected Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically. The barrier is located along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within distance of houses in the Aida [[refugee camp]] on one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other.<ref name=OCHA/> Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the [[West Bank]] are currently subjected to [[Israeli checkpoint]]s and roadblocks. The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives. Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into [[Jerusalem]] is regulated by a permit-system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/b45e8d8caacda74785256dbb0062e7b9?OpenDocument |title=Impact of Israel's separation barrier on affected West Bank communities – OCHA update report #2 |date=September 30, 2003 |access-date=August 4, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109191959/http://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/b45e8d8caacda74785256dbb0062e7b9?OpenDocument |archive-date=January 9, 2014}}</ref> Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of [[Rachel's Tomb]]. Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical [[Solomon's Pools]].<ref name=OCHA/>

==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in the State of Palestine}}
Bethlehem is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref>{{cite web|title=Twinning Cities|url=http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/twinning-cities|website=bethlehem-city.org|publisher=Bethlehem|access-date=April 20, 2020|archive-date=September 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916184110/http://www.bethlehem-city.org/en/twinning-cities|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Zaragoza Internacional|url=http://www.zaragoza.es/ciudad/zaragozainternacional/hermanamientos.htm|website=zaragoza.es|publisher=Zaragoza|language=es|access-date=April 20, 2020|archive-date=February 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224165111/http://www.zaragoza.es/ciudad/zaragozainternacional/hermanamientos.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jumelages|url=http://www.montpellier.fr/30-six-villes-jumelees-a-montpellier-un-jumelage-sur-4-continents.htm|website=montpellier.fr|publisher=Montpellier|language=fr|access-date=April 20, 2020|archive-date=August 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826015921/http://www.montpellier.fr/30-six-villes-jumelees-a-montpellier-un-jumelage-sur-4-continents.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
<!--rest - not twinning or twinning ended-->
*{{flagicon|UAE}} [[Abu Dhabi]], U.A.E.
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Assisi]], Italy
*{{flagicon|GRC}} [[Athens]], Greece
*{{flagicon|COL}} [[Barranquilla]], Colombia
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Brescia]], Italy
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]], USA
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Capri]], Italy
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Catanzaro]], Italy
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Chartres]], France
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Chivasso]], Italy
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Civitavecchia]], Italy
*{{flagicon|GER}} [[Cologne]], Germany
*{{flagicon|CHL}} [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]], Chile
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Cori, Lazio|Cori]], Italy
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Creil]], France
*{{flagicon|PER}} [[Cusco]], Peru
*{{flagicon|POL}} [[Częstochowa]], Poland
*{{flagicon|ESH}} [[Dakhla, Western Sahara|Dakhla]], Western Sahara
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Este, Veneto|Este]], Italy
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Faggiano]], Italy
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Florence]], Italy
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Gallipoli, Apulia|Gallipoli]], Italy
*{{flagicon|MLT}} [[Għajnsielem]], Malta
*{{flagicon|SCO}} [[Glasgow]], Scotland, U.K.
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Greccio]], Italy
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Grenoble]], France
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Lourdes]], France
*{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Monterrey]], Mexico
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Montevarchi]], Italy
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Montpellier]], France
*{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Natal, Rio Grande do Norte|Natal]], Brazil
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Pratovecchio Stia]], Italy
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia
*{{flagicon|NOR}} [[Sarpsborg]], Norway
*{{flagicon|AUT}} [[Steyr]], Austria
*{{flagicon|CHL}} [[Villa Alemana]], Chile
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Zaragoza]], Spain
<!--rest - not twinning or twinning ended-->
{{div col end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Palestine}}
* [[Bethlehem of Galilee]]
* [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Bethlehem, Carmarthenshire|Bethlehem, Wales]]
* [[Star of Bethlehem]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFKlein2018}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Albright |first=W. F. |date=1936-10-01 |title=The Canaanite God Ḥaurôn (Ḥôrôn) |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/370495 |journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1086/370495 |issn=1062-0516 |s2cid=170454212}}
*{{cite book|title=Politics and sociolinguistic reflexes: Palestinian border villages|first1=Muhammad|last1=Amara|edition=Illustrated|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=1999|isbn=978-90-272-4128-3}}
*{{cite book|title=A very political economy: peacebuilding and foreign aid in the West Bank and Gaza|first1=Rex|last1=Brynen|edition=Illustrated|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|year=2000|isbn=978-1-929223-04-6}}
*{{cite book|title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus|first1=John Dominic|last1=Crossan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Watts|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}
*{{cite book|author=Dunn, J.|author-link=James Dunn (theologian)|title=Jesus Remembered: Christianity in the Making|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC&pg=PA1|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-3931-2|access-date=November 25, 2015|archive-date=December 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=G4qpnvoautgC&pg=PA1|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|first1=Edwin D.|last1=Freed|year=2004|title=Stories of Jesus' Birth|publisher=Continuum International}}
*{{cite book |title= First Census of Population and Housing. Volume I: Final Tables; General Characteristics of the Population |author= Government of Jordan, Department of Statistics |year= 1964 |url= http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensus1961bits.pdf |access-date= December 10, 2018 |archive-date= April 3, 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150403115045/http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensus1961bits.pdf |url-status= live }}
*{{cite book|title=Village Statistics, April, 1945|url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/Hebrew/library/Pages/BookReader.aspx?pid=856390|author=Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics|year=1945|access-date=January 19, 2018|archive-date=April 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402072744/http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/hebrew/library/pages/bookreader.aspx?pid=856390|url-status=live}} 
*{{cite journal |last= Hartmann |first= M. |author-link= Martin Hartmann |title= Die Ortschaftenliste des Liwa Jerusalem in dem türkischen Staatskalender für Syrien auf das Jahr 1288 der Flucht (1871) |journal= Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins |volume= 6 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ/page/n131 102]–149 |url= https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_BZobAQAAIAAJ |year= 1883 }}
*{{Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|title=Bethlehem|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-720?rskey=yd5Bo8&result=701|first=Konstantin|last=Klein}}
*{{cite book|title=Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500|url=https://archive.org/details/palestineundermo00lestuoft|first=G.|last=Le Strange|author-link=Guy Le Strange|year=1890|publisher=Committee of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]]|access-date=March 17, 2016}}
*{{cite book|title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible|first1=Watson E.|last1=Mills|first2=Roger Aubrey|last2=Bullard|publisher=[[Mercer University]] Press|year=1990|volume=5}}
*{{cite book|title=The Towns of Palestine Under Muslim Rule|last=Petersen|first=Andrew|publisher=British Archaeological Reports|year=2005|isbn=978-1-84171-821-7|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n91/mode/2up|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111125306/https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600|archive-date=November 11, 2012}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |title= CHRISTIANITY i. In Pre-Islamic Persia: Literary Sources |last= Russell |first= James R. |author-link= James R. Russell |url= http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/christianity-i |encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, Fasc. 5 |pages= 523–528 |year= 1991 |access-date= March 10, 2019 |archive-date= November 17, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121117015540/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/christianity-i |url-status= live }}
*{{cite book|first=P.P.|last=Read| author-link =Piers Paul Read|title=The Templars|publisher=Macmillan|year=2000|isbn=978-0-312-26658-5}}
*{{cite news|title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|first=E.P.|last=Sanders|author-link =E. P. Sanders|year=1993}}
*Sawsan & [[Qustandi Shomali|Shomali, Q.]], Bethlehem 2000. A Guide to Bethlehem and it Surroundings. Waldbrol, Flamm Druck Wagener GMBH, 1997.
*{{cite book |first=A. |last=Singer |author-link=Amy Singer (historian) |title=Palestinian Peasants and Ottoman Officials: Rural Administration Around Sixteenth-Century Jerusalem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-47679-9 |access-date=November 25, 2015 |archive-date=December 31, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231205315/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrsAw_mk1d0C |url-status=live }}
*{{cite journal |last= Socin |first= A. |author-link= Albert Socin |title= Alphabetisches Verzeichniss von Ortschaften des Paschalik Jerusalem |journal= Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins |volume= 2 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftdesde01deut/page/135 135]–163 |url= https://archive.org/details/zeitschriftdesde01deut |year= 1879 }}
*{{cite book|title=Christians and the Holy Places|first=J.E.|last=Taylor| author-link =Joan E. Taylor|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1993}}
*{{cite book|first=W.M.|last=Thomson|author-link=William McClure Thomson|title=The Land and the Book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_S44XAAAAYAAJ|year=1860}}
*{{cite book|title=The Nativity: History and Legend|last=Vermes |first=G.|author-link =Géza Vermes|year=2006|publisher=Penguin Press}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Bethlehem}}
{{Wikivoyage|Bethlehem}}

* [http://www.bethlehem-city.org/ Bethlehem Municipality]
* [http://www.palestineremembered.com/GeoPoints/Bethlehem_536/index.html Welcome To The City of Bethlehem]
* [http://www.openbethlehem.org/ Open Bethlehem civil society project] 
* [https://blogs.wsj.com/photojournal/2008/12/24/pictures-of-the-day-84/ Photo: Christmas in Bethlehem, 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123213618/https://blogs.wsj.com/photojournal/2008/12/24/pictures-of-the-day-84/ |date=November 23, 2017 }} 
* [http://www.bethlehemfairtrade.org/ Bethlehem Fair Trade Artisans]
* [http://www.bethlehem.edu/ Bethlehem University]
* [http://vprofile.arij.org/bethlehem/images/areal/Bethlehem_ap_en.jpg Bethlehem aerial photo], [[Applied Research Institute–Jerusalem]]

{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to Bethlehem
|list =
{{Bethlehem Governorate}}
{{Cities in Palestinian Authority areas}}
{{Christmas}}
{{New Testament places associated with Jesus}}
{{Nativity of Jesus}}
{{Arab Capital of Culture}}
}}
{{Authority control}}
{{good article}}

[[Category:Bethlehem| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
[[Category:Palestinian Christian communities]]
[[Category:Cities in the West Bank]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:New Testament cities]]
[[Category:Torah cities]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish settlements of Judaea]]
[[Category:David]]
[[Category:Books of Samuel]]
[[Category:Nativity of Jesus in the New Testament]]
[[Category:Municipalities of the State of Palestine]]
[[Category:Christian holy places]]