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Fixed reference date error(s) (see CS1 errors: dates for details) and AWB general fixes
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Alter: url, isbn, title. URLs might have been anonymized. Add: title, authors 1-1. Changed bare reference to CS1/2. Removed parameters. Upgrade ISBN10 to 13. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Headbomb | Category:CS1 errors: dates | #UCB_Category 6/27
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A [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] chief named Khaisan was skinned alive and his heart cut out of his chest by the [[Oirats|Oirat]] Mongol [[Ja Lama]]. His and another Kazakh's skin were used as a religious implement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lattimore |first1=Owen |title=Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia |last2=Nachukdorji |first2=Sh |date=1955 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn= |location= |page=61 |chapter=THE PROBLEM OF PERSONALITY: SKETCHES OF TWO CAREERS |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28wUAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Ja+Lama+ordered+the+breast+of+a+Kazak+leader+to+be+cut+open+and+the+heart+torn+out%22&pg=PA61}}</ref> The skins were found in Khaisan's [[yurt]] in Muunjaviin Ulaan on 8 February 1914 by [[Cossacks]] under Captain Bulatov.<ref>{{cite web |last=Croner |first=Don |date=June 5, 2009 |title=Russia - Astrakhan - Dambijantsan - Pestelya Street |url=http://www.doncroner.net/labels/Dambijantsan.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905043055/http://www.doncroner.net/labels/Dambijantsan.html |archive-date=5 September 2012 |access-date= |website=Don Croner |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Croner |first=Don |date=May 13, 2008 |title=Mongolia - Khovd Aimag - Ja Lama and the Siege of Khovd |url=http://worldwidewanders1.blogspot.com/2008/05/mongolia.html |access-date= |website= |publisher= |quote=}}</ref> A [[White Army|White Guard]] soldier's heart was eaten by the Mongol Choijon Lama. Mongol banners were sprinkled with blood from the hearts of Russian White Guard and Chinese, according to A. V. Burdukov.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuzmin |first=Sergius L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tG32DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22and+took+the+skin+off+a+kazakh%3B+Choijon+Lama%22&pg=PA125 |title=Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation |date=2011 |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |others=Dmitry Bennett |isbn=978-9380359472 |editor-last=Terentyev |editor-first=Andrey |location= |page=125 |author-link= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204133720/https://books.google.com/books?id=tG32DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22and+took+the+skin+off+a+kazakh%3B+Choijon+Lama%22&pg=PA125 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |access-date=25 January 2022 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Life of Ja Lama |url=http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Life_of_Ja_Lama |access-date= |website=Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia |publisher= |quote=}}</ref> |
A [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] chief named Khaisan was skinned alive and his heart cut out of his chest by the [[Oirats|Oirat]] Mongol [[Ja Lama]]. His and another Kazakh's skin were used as a religious implement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lattimore |first1=Owen |title=Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia |last2=Nachukdorji |first2=Sh |date=1955 |publisher=Brill Archive |isbn= |location= |page=61 |chapter=THE PROBLEM OF PERSONALITY: SKETCHES OF TWO CAREERS |author-link= |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28wUAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Ja+Lama+ordered+the+breast+of+a+Kazak+leader+to+be+cut+open+and+the+heart+torn+out%22&pg=PA61}}</ref> The skins were found in Khaisan's [[yurt]] in Muunjaviin Ulaan on 8 February 1914 by [[Cossacks]] under Captain Bulatov.<ref>{{cite web |last=Croner |first=Don |date=June 5, 2009 |title=Russia - Astrakhan - Dambijantsan - Pestelya Street |url=http://www.doncroner.net/labels/Dambijantsan.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905043055/http://www.doncroner.net/labels/Dambijantsan.html |archive-date=5 September 2012 |access-date= |website=Don Croner |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Croner |first=Don |date=May 13, 2008 |title=Mongolia - Khovd Aimag - Ja Lama and the Siege of Khovd |url=http://worldwidewanders1.blogspot.com/2008/05/mongolia.html |access-date= |website= |publisher= |quote=}}</ref> A [[White Army|White Guard]] soldier's heart was eaten by the Mongol Choijon Lama. Mongol banners were sprinkled with blood from the hearts of Russian White Guard and Chinese, according to A. V. Burdukov.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuzmin |first=Sergius L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tG32DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22and+took+the+skin+off+a+kazakh%3B+Choijon+Lama%22&pg=PA125 |title=Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation |date=2011 |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |others=Dmitry Bennett |isbn=978-9380359472 |editor-last=Terentyev |editor-first=Andrey |location= |page=125 |author-link= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204133720/https://books.google.com/books?id=tG32DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22and+took+the+skin+off+a+kazakh%3B+Choijon+Lama%22&pg=PA125 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |access-date=25 January 2022 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Life of Ja Lama |url=http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Life_of_Ja_Lama |access-date= |website=Tibetan Buddhist Encyclopedia |publisher= |quote=}}</ref> |
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Mongol Oirat Kalmyk leader Ja Lama skinned a Kazakh alive.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anglo-Mongolian Society |date=1983 |title= Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oLjAAAAMAAJ&q=ja+lama+flayed+kazakh |
Mongol Oirat Kalmyk leader Ja Lama skinned a Kazakh alive.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anglo-Mongolian Society |date=1983 |title= Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oLjAAAAMAAJ&q=ja+lama+flayed+kazakh |quote=On one occasion , a man from Halh came to Ja Lama's camp claiming to be his brother , and demanding respect for this reason ... The Diluv Hutagt tells one story of how a Kazakh bandit was skinned alive by Dambiijantsan , and even gives ... |page=35 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Kaplan|editor1-first=Edward H.|editor2-last=Whisenhunt|editor2-first=Donald W.|editor3-last=Schwarz|editor3-first=Henry G.| volume =19 of Studies on East Asia|date=1994 |title= Opuscula Altaica: Essays Presented in Honor of Henry Schwarz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2VtAAAAMAAJ&q=ja+lama+flayed+kazakh |quote=... the chest of a Kazakh chieftain be cut open and his heart torn out , after which the skin was flayed from his body . ... Vladimirtsov met Ja Lama in Astrakhan in September 1917.62 On March 7, 1914 , the Russian diplomatic agent in ... |publisher= Western Washington|edition=illustrated|page= 159 |isbn=0914584197}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Kuzmin|first= Sergius L.|editor-last= Terentyev|editor-first= Andrey |date= 2011 |title=Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tG32DwAAQBAJ&dq=ja+lama+kazakh+skin&pg=PA125|quote=and took the skin off a Kazakh; Choijon Lama ate the heart of a White Guard soldier; |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |page=125 |isbn=978-9380359472}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Australian National University. Institute of Advanced Studies|date=2000 |title=East Asian History, Nummers 19-20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yH8wAQAAIAAJ&q=dambijatsan |quote=For the Volga Kalmyk lama Dambijangčan ( Dambijatsan ; d . 1922 ) and his Page ( 127 ) political role in the Autonomous Government period , see Bawden 1989 , pp . 192 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 251-4 . Cf. also Lattimore 1955 , pp.9 ... |publisher=Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University |page=81 }}</ref><ref>https://www.eastasianhistory.org/sites/default/files/article-content/19/EAH19_03.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.academia.edu/36314621 | title=Ja Lama with his Legends by Vello Vaartnou | last1=Väärtnöu | first1=Vello }}</ref><ref>https://www.ayurzana.mn/newsView/175</ref><ref>https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:Q9u-X-XuIAgJ:https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/229254299.pdf http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/21595/1/jaas001016.pdf</ref> |
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The Kalmyk Oirat Mongol Ja Lama Dambijatsan skinned the Kazakh Akynbek Tokyluly alive after fighting the Kerei Kazakhs in the Altai mountains. The Kazakhs claim the Kalmyk Oirats killed Kazakh children and fed them to dogs and birds and tried to kidnap Kazakh girls and force convert Kazakhs to Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism from Islam.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://abai.kz/post/43442|title= ТІРІДЕЙ СОЙЫЛҒАН ҚАЗАҚТЫҢ ҚАСІРЕТІ|last= |first= |date=April 18, 2016 |website= Абай-Ақпарат|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://abai.kz/tt/post/43442 |title=تىرىدەي سويىلعان قازاقتىڭ قاسىرەتى |last= |first= |date=پىكىر 18 ءساۋىر, 2016 ساعات 10:31 |website=اباي-اقپارات |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> The skin is now in the National Museum in Prague, Czech republic after a Czech soldier, Vaclav Kopetsky of the Czechslovak legion obtained the flayed skin and his great grandson gave it to the museum.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://erjanibek.kz/qogamdyq-kory/631 |title= КЕСІК БАС. ТІРІ ТҰЛҰП. БҮГІНГІ ҰРПАҚ. |
The Kalmyk Oirat Mongol Ja Lama Dambijatsan skinned the Kazakh Akynbek Tokyluly alive after fighting the Kerei Kazakhs in the Altai mountains. The Kazakhs claim the Kalmyk Oirats killed Kazakh children and fed them to dogs and birds and tried to kidnap Kazakh girls and force convert Kazakhs to Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism from Islam.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://abai.kz/post/43442|title= ТІРІДЕЙ СОЙЫЛҒАН ҚАЗАҚТЫҢ ҚАСІРЕТІ|last= |first= |date=April 18, 2016 |website= Абай-Ақпарат|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://abai.kz/tt/post/43442 |title=تىرىدەي سويىلعان قازاقتىڭ قاسىرەتى |last= |first= |date=پىكىر 18 ءساۋىر, 2016 ساعات 10:31 |website=اباي-اقپارات |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> The skin is now in the National Museum in Prague, Czech republic after a Czech soldier, Vaclav Kopetsky of the Czechslovak legion obtained the flayed skin and his great grandson gave it to the museum.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://erjanibek.kz/qogamdyq-kory/631 |title= КЕСІК БАС. ТІРІ ТҰЛҰП. БҮГІНГІ ҰРПАҚ.|author=erjanibek |date=2014 ж. Ақпан 7 |website=Ер Жәнібек халықаралық қоғамдық қоры - www.erjanibek.kz |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>https://erjanibek.kz/qogamdyq-kory/631/119b4327ef323938210408ee43e703e0</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ok.ru/alashorda/topic/66338169154509 |title= Бесстрашный казахский батыр Акынбек Токылулы. (События происходили в... | Интересный контент в группе ALAŚ ORDA|last= |first= |date=5 Jan 2017 |website=ALAŚ ORDA |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://travelerscoffee.ru/nl/fertilizer/poveshenie-dvuh-sposoby-kazni-v-raznye-vremena-16-foto/|title=Twee hangen. Uitvoeringsmethoden op verschillende tijdstippen (16 foto's) |last= |first= |date= |website= travelerscoffee|publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://travelerscoffee.ru/fertilizer/poveshenie-dvuh-sposoby-kazni-v-raznye-vremena-16-foto/|title= Повешение двух. Способы казни в разные времена (16 фото)|last= |first= |date= |website=travelerscoffee |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.travel.ru/news/2009/02/15/167005.html|title=Чешский музей включил в экспозицию человеческую кожу |last= |first= |date= 15 February 2009|website=travel.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://madeniportal.kz/article/4949|title= Тірідей сойылған қазақтың қасіреті |last= |first= |date= |website=Мәдениет порталы |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://darkermagazine.ru/page/dzha-lama-monah-koldun-i-tiran |title=Джа-лама: монах, колдун и тиран |last= |first= |date=№5 май 2015 |website= Darker Magazine |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url= https://vesmir.cz/cz/casopis/archiv-casopisu/2003/cislo-2/kuze-stazena-z-ziveho-cloveka.html|title= Kůže stažená z živého člověka|last=Vlček |first=Emanuel |date=2. 2. 2003 |journal=Vesmír |volume=82|number=94|access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://peskiadmin.ru/en/sovetskie-soldaty-mucheniki-afganistana-sovetskie-soldaty.html|title=Soviet soldiers are the martyrs of Afghanistan. Soviet soldiers - martyrs of Afghanistan Afghan torture red tulip |last= |first= |date= |website=Портал нормативных документов |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.idnes.cz/cestovani/po-cesku/narodni-muzeum-praha-depozitare-posmrtne-masky-maska-exponat-nm.A180413_160051_po-cesku_hig |title=Když se zhmotní smrt. Podzemí muzea skrývá tváře velikánů |last= |first= |date= 16. dubna 2018|website=iDNES.cz – s námi víte víc |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://disgustingmen.com/history/3-awesome-impostors|title= Будда с маузером, армянин-индеец и белокурый тайванец: три самозванца, о которых вы никогда не слышали|last= Бровин |first=Владимир |date= 2015-09-26|website=Disgusting Men |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.labirint.ru/screenshot/goods/151204/4/|title=Четвертая иллюстрация к книге Барон Унгерн. Черный всадник - Борис Соколов |last= |first= |date= |website=Лабиринт |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://valenteshop.ru/kazn-krasnyi-tyulpan-i-drugie-shokiruyushchie-fakty-o-voine-v-afganstane-krasnyi/ |title=Казнь『красный тюльпан』и другие шокирующие факты о войне в Афганстане.『Красный тюльпан』(5 фото) Афганистан красный тюльпан пытка |last= |first= |date= 2020-09-30 |website=valenteshop.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pani-mama.ru/tr/samye-zhestokie-kazni-v-alkatrase-1-krovavaya-samye-zhestokie/ |title=Alcatraz 1 kanlı en acımasız infazlar. Alcatraz'daki en acımasız infazlar. Dişler pullardan çıkar |last= |first= |date= |website=pani-mama.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://kerchtt.ru/el/samye-strashnye-kazni-lyudei-samye-strashnye-kazni-v-mirovoi-istorii-sovremennye/ |title=Οι πιο τρομερές εκτελέσεις ανθρώπων. Οι χειρότερες εκτελέσεις στην παγκόσμια ιστορία |last= |first= |date= |website=kerchtt.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://evg-crystal.ru/kartiny/kazn-kartina.html|title=Пытки и казни в Европе и Азии ( Картины, гравюры): kartam47 |last= |first= |date= |website=evg-crystal.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://darktown.cz/top-5-nejhorsi-nekreativnejsi-metody-popravy/ |title= TOP 5 Nejhorší/Nekreativnější metody popravy|author=Mike-K |date=2019-09-17 |website=darktown.cz |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ik-ptz.ru/physics/kazn-cherez-poveshenie-dvuh-naskolko-zhestok-chelovek-vidy-i.html |title=Казнь через повешение двух. 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Най-жестокото изпълнение в кървавата пещ Alcatrase |last= |first= |date= |website=thebridgestudio.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://spisokmagazinov.ru/info/dzhi-lama/ |title= Джи лама|last= |first= |date=09.03.2020 |website=Список Магазинов |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://tugulympu.ru/samye-uzhasnye-srednevekovye-pytki-dlya-devushek-sposoby-kazni/ |title=Самые ужасные средневековые пытки для девушек. Способы казни в разные времена (16 фото) Рисунки казни девушек обезглавливание |last= |first= |date= |website=tugulympu.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://vit-vladimir.ru/sv/10-samyh-strashnyh-kaznei-drevnego-mira-samye-strashnye-pytki/ |title= Tio värsta avrättningar i den antika världen Den värsta tortyren för kvinnor. Video om värsta avrättningar i världen|last= |first= |date=2020-07-19 |website=vit-vladimir.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://vit-vladimir.ru/bg/10-samyh-strashnyh-kaznei-drevnego-mira-samye-strashnye-pytki/ |title= 10 най-лоши екзекуции на древния свят Най-лошото мъчение за жените. Видео за най-лошите екзекуции в света|last= |first= |date=2020-07-19 |website=vit-vladimir.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://chistenkoeschool.ru/istoriya/istyazanie-dyrok-kakie-pytki-byli-specialno-pridumany-dlya-zhenshchin/ |title= Истязание дырок. Какие пытки были специально придуманы для женщин. Растворение в кислоте |last= |first= |date= |website=chistenkoeschool.ru |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref> |
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[[Owen Lattimore]] described Mongol Sandagdorjiyn Magsarjav (1877–1927) as "a strange, romantic and sometimes savage figure". Magsarjav had served under [[Roman von Ungern-Sternberg|Ungern-Sternberg]]. In Uriankhai, Kazakh bandits who were captured had their hearts cut out and sacrificed by Magsarjav.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYSzDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Magsarjav+also+sacrificed+the+hearts+of+Kazakh+bandits+when+his+troops+were+operating+in+the%22&pg=PA55 |title=Mongolia: A Political History of the Land and its People |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1788316958 |location= |page=55 |author-link=}}</ref> |
[[Owen Lattimore]] described Mongol Sandagdorjiyn Magsarjav (1877–1927) as "a strange, romantic and sometimes savage figure". Magsarjav had served under [[Roman von Ungern-Sternberg|Ungern-Sternberg]]. In Uriankhai, Kazakh bandits who were captured had their hearts cut out and sacrificed by Magsarjav.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYSzDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Magsarjav+also+sacrificed+the+hearts+of+Kazakh+bandits+when+his+troops+were+operating+in+the%22&pg=PA55 |title=Mongolia: A Political History of the Land and its People |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1788316958 |location= |page=55 |author-link=}}</ref> |
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Being forced to migrate from Northern Xinjiang to the [[Kokonur|Kokonor]] plateau in [[Qinghai]], the nomadic Kazakhs resorted to plundering and robbing as they passed through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. In 1941, General Ma Bufang agreed to settle the Kazakhs in several pasturelands in an attempt to avoid further conflicts and quell aggressions. However, with the Kokonor plateau being home to Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs, the tribes continued to periodically engage in conflict with each other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lin |first=Hsaio-ting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&dq=%22Between+1938+and+1941,+the+migration+of+the+Kazakh+nomadic+tribes+posed+one+of+the+most+problematic+issues+in+western+China,+and+Chongqing+needed+to+rely+on%22&pg=PA112 |title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49 |date=2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0774859882 |series=Contemporary Chinese Studies Series |location= |page= |quote=The Kazakhs were plundering and robbing on the Tibetan-Kokonor plateau in Qinghai as they came through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. There were over 7,000 of them between 1938-1941. On the Kokonor plateau, Hui (Tungans), Tibetans and Kazakhs continued to battle each other despite the Kazkah nomads being settled in demarcated pasturelands under Ma Bufang's watch in 1941. |author-link= }}</ref><ref name="Lin2011p112">{{cite book |author=Hsaio-ting Lin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&q=kazakhs+kansu+tibetans&pg=PA112 |title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49 |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-5988-2 |pages=112–}}</ref> Hisao Kimura, a Japanese spy, cited a Tibetan Lama telling him that Kazakhs were enemies of the Tibetans: "This land, is very unsettled compared with Inner Mongolia. To the west, the Kazakhs persecute our people, and we are powerless to stop them."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kimura |first1=Hisao |last2=Berry |first2=Scott |editor-last=Berry |editor-first=Scott |others=Contributor Scott Berry|author-link= |date=1990 |title=Japanese Agent in Tibet: My Ten Years of Travel in Disguise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDqlbKQhFIQC&dq=%22To+the+west+the+Kazakhs+persecute+our+people,+and+we+are+powerless+to+stop+them%22&pg=PA58 |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= Serindia Publications, Inc.|page= 58|isbn=0906026245}}</ref> The Kazakhs who migrated to Iran and Pakistan via India and Tibet moved to Turkey in the 1950s, with some becoming guest workers in Germany in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheryazdanova |first=Kamilla |editor1-last= Banerjee|editor1-first=Santo |editor2-last=Erçetin |editor2-first= Şefika Şule |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Chaos, Complexity and Leadership 2012 |series=Springer Proceedings in Complexity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZQJAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22this+hard+reduction+was+caused+by+both+decrease+of+migration+potential+of+the+community+and+by+change%22&pg=PA50|archive-url=https://vdoc.pub/documents/chaos-complexity-and-leadership-2012-6ai2hhncd8r0|archive-date=August 3, 2021|location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|pages=50, 51 |isbn=978-9400773622|chapter=Chapter 8 The Role and Place of Migration and Diaspora's Policy in Bilateral Relations Between Kazakhstan and Germany}}</ref> |
Being forced to migrate from Northern Xinjiang to the [[Kokonur|Kokonor]] plateau in [[Qinghai]], the nomadic Kazakhs resorted to plundering and robbing as they passed through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. In 1941, General Ma Bufang agreed to settle the Kazakhs in several pasturelands in an attempt to avoid further conflicts and quell aggressions. However, with the Kokonor plateau being home to Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs, the tribes continued to periodically engage in conflict with each other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lin |first=Hsaio-ting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&dq=%22Between+1938+and+1941,+the+migration+of+the+Kazakh+nomadic+tribes+posed+one+of+the+most+problematic+issues+in+western+China,+and+Chongqing+needed+to+rely+on%22&pg=PA112 |title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49 |date=2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0774859882 |series=Contemporary Chinese Studies Series |location= |page= |quote=The Kazakhs were plundering and robbing on the Tibetan-Kokonor plateau in Qinghai as they came through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. There were over 7,000 of them between 1938-1941. On the Kokonor plateau, Hui (Tungans), Tibetans and Kazakhs continued to battle each other despite the Kazkah nomads being settled in demarcated pasturelands under Ma Bufang's watch in 1941. |author-link= }}</ref><ref name="Lin2011p112">{{cite book |author=Hsaio-ting Lin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osn1WrRCelcC&q=kazakhs+kansu+tibetans&pg=PA112 |title=Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49 |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-5988-2 |pages=112–}}</ref> Hisao Kimura, a Japanese spy, cited a Tibetan Lama telling him that Kazakhs were enemies of the Tibetans: "This land, is very unsettled compared with Inner Mongolia. To the west, the Kazakhs persecute our people, and we are powerless to stop them."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kimura |first1=Hisao |last2=Berry |first2=Scott |editor-last=Berry |editor-first=Scott |others=Contributor Scott Berry|author-link= |date=1990 |title=Japanese Agent in Tibet: My Ten Years of Travel in Disguise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDqlbKQhFIQC&dq=%22To+the+west+the+Kazakhs+persecute+our+people,+and+we+are+powerless+to+stop+them%22&pg=PA58 |location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= Serindia Publications, Inc.|page= 58|isbn=0906026245}}</ref> The Kazakhs who migrated to Iran and Pakistan via India and Tibet moved to Turkey in the 1950s, with some becoming guest workers in Germany in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheryazdanova |first=Kamilla |editor1-last= Banerjee|editor1-first=Santo |editor2-last=Erçetin |editor2-first= Şefika Şule |author-link= |date=2013 |title=Chaos, Complexity and Leadership 2012 |series=Springer Proceedings in Complexity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZQJAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22this+hard+reduction+was+caused+by+both+decrease+of+migration+potential+of+the+community+and+by+change%22&pg=PA50|archive-url=https://vdoc.pub/documents/chaos-complexity-and-leadership-2012-6ai2hhncd8r0|archive-date=August 3, 2021|location= |edition=illustrated|publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|pages=50, 51 |isbn=978-9400773622|chapter=Chapter 8 The Role and Place of Migration and Diaspora's Policy in Bilateral Relations Between Kazakhstan and Germany}}</ref> |
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[[Upper Mongols|Deed Mongols]] in the Tayijinar banner of Qinghai were slaughtered by Kazakhs invading from Xinjiang in 1943.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anglo-Mongolian Society |date=1983 |title= Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-1|url=https://books.google.com/books? |
[[Upper Mongols|Deed Mongols]] in the Tayijinar banner of Qinghai were slaughtered by Kazakhs invading from Xinjiang in 1943.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anglo-Mongolian Society |date=1983 |title= Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society, Volumes 8-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oLjAAAAMAAJ&q=kazakh |quote=The Deed8 Mongols (meaning 'Mongols living in an upper position') came from Xinjiang around 300 years ago and herded in the vast area of central and northwest Qinghai in the old Tayijinar Banner. Then, in the year 1943, many Kazakh swept down from Xinjiang. In pitched battles, the Mongols were outnumbered and many killed. Survivors fled to such places as Tibet, Gansu, the Qinghai lake vicinity, and Duland. Later, most of the Kazakh returned to Xinjiang and in 1959, only some of the previous 1,500 or so Mongols returned to Urtmören9. In 1983, the remaining Kazakh moved to Xinjiang. (In the past two years, about some 200-400 have returned to the Golmud administrative district, apparently dissatisfied with conditions in Xinjiang.)10 |publisher= |page=48 |isbn=}}</ref> |
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During his travels in Qinghai, [[Office of Strategic Services]] agent [[Leonard Clark (explorer)|Leonard Francis Clark]] reported that local Muslims told him about Kazakhs invading Tibet via the Nan Shan mountains in Xinjiang over the course of eight years in the 1940s. According to them, the Kazakhs were responsible for massacring 8,000 Buddhist Mongols during that period and claimed this was only possible due to the Chinese Nationalist Government disarming the Mongols. Further inquiries did not lead to more information and when Clark questioned missionaries in [[Lanzhou]], they only confirmed occasional raids from a few stray bands of Kazakhs over the last years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |title=The Marching Wind |date=1954 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |isbn= |location= |pages=317–318 |author-link=}}</ref> |
During his travels in Qinghai, [[Office of Strategic Services]] agent [[Leonard Clark (explorer)|Leonard Francis Clark]] reported that local Muslims told him about Kazakhs invading Tibet via the Nan Shan mountains in Xinjiang over the course of eight years in the 1940s. According to them, the Kazakhs were responsible for massacring 8,000 Buddhist Mongols during that period and claimed this was only possible due to the Chinese Nationalist Government disarming the Mongols. Further inquiries did not lead to more information and when Clark questioned missionaries in [[Lanzhou]], they only confirmed occasional raids from a few stray bands of Kazakhs over the last years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Leonard Francis |url=https://archive.org/details/marchingwind00clar/mode/2up |title=The Marching Wind |date=1954 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |isbn= |location= |pages=317–318 |author-link=}}</ref> |
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Kazakh women in Ürümqi
| |
| Total population | |
| 1,462,588 | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Xinjiang (Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County, Mori Kazakh Autonomous County) | |
| Languages | |
| Kazakh, Russian, Mandarin | |
| Religion | |
| Sunni Islam | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Turkic peoples |
| Kazakhs in China | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chinese name | |||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 中国哈萨克族 | ||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 中國哈薩克族 | ||||||
| |||||||
| Kazakh name | |||||||
| Kazakh | جۇڭگو قازاقتارى Қытайда тұратын қазақтар | ||||||
Kazakhs are a Turkic ethnic group and one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. There is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture – IliinXinjiang – and three Kazakh autonomous counties – AksayinGansu, and Barkol and Mori in Xinjiang.
During the fall of the Dzungar Khanate in the mid-18th century, the Manchus massacred the native Dzungar Oirat MongolsofDzungaria (northern Xinjiang Province) in the Dzungar genocide, and afterwards colonized the depopulated area with immigrants from many parts of their empire. Among the peoples who moved into the depopulated Dzungaria were the Kazakhs from the Kazakh Khanates.[1]
In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed the Kazakhs to neighboring countries. Russian settlers on traditional Kazakh land drove many over the border to China, causing their population to increase in China.[2] Comparatively, the Kazakhs received more benefits in the Chinese-controlled areas than the Russian-controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the nomadic Kazakhs, which led the Russians to believe that the Kazakhs would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Kazakhs were certain that in an upcoming war, China would defeat Russia.[3]
In the early 20th century, Kazakhs fled to China to escape Russian persecution and slaughter during the Basmachi movement in 1916.[4] During the Russian Revolution, when Muslims faced tsarist conscription, Xinjiang again became a sanctuary for Kazakhs fleeing Russia.[5] During the 1920s, hundreds of thousands of Kazakh nomads moved from Soviet Kazakhstan to Xinjiang to escape Soviet persecution, famine,[note 1] violence, and forced sedentarization.[6] Kazakhs that moved to China at first fought for the Soviet Communist-backed Uyghur Second East Turkestan Republic but then defected to the Republic of China to fight against the Second East Turkestan Republic and Soviets in the Ili Rebellion (1944–1949)
Toops[who?] estimated that 326,000 Kazakhs, 65,000 Kirghiz, 92,000 Hui, 187,000 Han, and 2,984,000 Uyghur (totaling 3,730,000) lived in Xinjiang in 1941. Hoppe[who?] estimated that 4,334,000 people lived in Xinjiang in 1949.[7]
AKazakh chief named Khaisan was skinned alive and his heart cut out of his chest by the Oirat Mongol Ja Lama. His and another Kazakh's skin were used as a religious implement.[8] The skins were found in Khaisan's yurt in Muunjaviin Ulaan on 8 February 1914 by Cossacks under Captain Bulatov.[9][10]AWhite Guard soldier's heart was eaten by the Mongol Choijon Lama. Mongol banners were sprinkled with blood from the hearts of Russian White Guard and Chinese, according to A. V. Burdukov.[11][12]
Mongol Oirat Kalmyk leader Ja Lama skinned a Kazakh alive.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]
The Kalmyk Oirat Mongol Ja Lama Dambijatsan skinned the Kazakh Akynbek Tokyluly alive after fighting the Kerei Kazakhs in the Altai mountains. The Kazakhs claim the Kalmyk Oirats killed Kazakh children and fed them to dogs and birds and tried to kidnap Kazakh girls and force convert Kazakhs to Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism from Islam.[21][22] The skin is now in the National Museum in Prague, Czech republic after a Czech soldier, Vaclav Kopetsky of the Czechslovak legion obtained the flayed skin and his great grandson gave it to the museum.[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]
Owen Lattimore described Mongol Sandagdorjiyn Magsarjav (1877–1927) as "a strange, romantic and sometimes savage figure". Magsarjav had served under Ungern-Sternberg. In Uriankhai, Kazakh bandits who were captured had their hearts cut out and sacrificed by Magsarjav.[50]
In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui Chinese led by General Ma Bufang massacred Kazakhs, until there were only 135 of them left.[51]
Being forced to migrate from Northern Xinjiang to the Kokonor plateau in Qinghai, the nomadic Kazakhs resorted to plundering and robbing as they passed through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. In 1941, General Ma Bufang agreed to settle the Kazakhs in several pasturelands in an attempt to avoid further conflicts and quell aggressions. However, with the Kokonor plateau being home to Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs, the tribes continued to periodically engage in conflict with each other.[52][53] Hisao Kimura, a Japanese spy, cited a Tibetan Lama telling him that Kazakhs were enemies of the Tibetans: "This land, is very unsettled compared with Inner Mongolia. To the west, the Kazakhs persecute our people, and we are powerless to stop them."[54] The Kazakhs who migrated to Iran and Pakistan via India and Tibet moved to Turkey in the 1950s, with some becoming guest workers in Germany in the 1960s.[55]
Deed Mongols in the Tayijinar banner of Qinghai were slaughtered by Kazakhs invading from Xinjiang in 1943.[56]
During his travels in Qinghai, Office of Strategic Services agent Leonard Francis Clark reported that local Muslims told him about Kazakhs invading Tibet via the Nan Shan mountains in Xinjiang over the course of eight years in the 1940s. According to them, the Kazakhs were responsible for massacring 8,000 Buddhist Mongols during that period and claimed this was only possible due to the Chinese Nationalist Government disarming the Mongols. Further inquiries did not lead to more information and when Clark questioned missionaries in Lanzhou, they only confirmed occasional raids from a few stray bands of Kazakhs over the last years.[57]
From 1934 to 1938, Qumil Elisqan led about 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu and Qinghai.[58] Over the span of 2 years of battles, 5,000 Kazakhs were killed by Hui Muslim Chinese and Tibetans in Gansu. Led by Eliskhan Batur Elifuglu (1919–1943), the 13,000 survivors fled towards India in September 1940.[59]
Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 400 miles east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.[60][59] To stop the migrants, a Tibetan cavalry numbering 1,000 attacked and fought the Kazakhs for three days in north Tibet, but ultimately lost.[59] Afterwards, the Tibetan government sent the Kazakhs to the Ladakh region of Kashmir in British India.[61] When they arrived at the Kashmir border, many Kazakhs died when the British ordered Indian guards to shoot. Once it was realized that they were civilians, the 3,039 surviving Kazakhs were let into India via Chuchul checkpoint in September 1941. Over these 3 years, 15,000 Kazakhs were killed.[59]
When they were debriefed by British officials, the Kazakhs accused Tibetans and Tungans (Hui Chinese) of attacking them in Gansu, Qinghai, and Tibet.[62][63] The Kazakhs said they were fleeing from the Soviets and the Soviet-backed warlord Sheng Shicai in Xinjiang. They accused Tibetan raiders of killing Kenzhebay, a relative of Elisqan, and accused the Hui-ruled Qinghai government of ignoring the murder. This incited them to move out of Qinghai towards India and Tibet. The Kazakhs accused Tibetan Qulïq people of being warlike and attacking the Kazakhs, and claimed that Kazakhs led by Elisqan had defeated them. The Kazakhs then accused a Hui Muslim (Dungan) called Fulušan of leading an assault with Mongol and Tibetan troops against the Kazakhs in Altïnšöke (Алтыншёке).[64][65][66]
Upon crossing the border, however, the Kazakhs were unwelcome in Kashmir, and were confined to an open mountainous camp on the outskirts of Muzaffarabad. Due to poor living conditions and the monsoon rains, more Kazakhs and their livestock died daily. In April 1942, with the help of local Muslims, the Kazakhs were allowed to move to Gari Habibullah, and then Ternova village, where Indian Muslims hosted them. Nevertheless, additional Kazakhs died from illness, poor diet, and the warm climate. The remaining Kazakhs were granted residence permits, and with the help of regional nawabs, resettled elsewhere, with most eventually ending up in Pakistan after the Partition of India in 1947.[59]
(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population.)
| Сounty/City | % Kazakh | Kazakh pop | Total pop |
|---|---|---|---|
| Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region | 6.74 | 1,245,023 | 18,459,511 |
| Aksay Kazakh autonomous county | 30.5 | 2,712 | 8,891 |
| Ürümqi city | 2.34 | 48,772 | 2,081,834 |
| Tianshan district | 1.77 | 8,354 | 471,432 |
| Saybag district | 1.27 | 6,135 | 482,235 |
| Xinshi district | 1.06 | 4,005 | 379,220 |
| Dongshan district | 1.96 | 1,979 | 100,796 |
| Ürümqi county | 8.00 | 26,278 | 328,536 |
| Karamay city | 3.67 | 9,919 | 270,232 |
| Dushanzi district | 4.24 | 2,150 | 50,732 |
| Karamay district | 3.49 | 5,079 | 145,452 |
| Baijiantan district | 3.35 | 2,151 | 64,297 |
| Urko district | 5.53 | 539 | 9,751 |
| Hami city | 8.76 | 43,104 | 492,096 |
| Yizhou district | 2.71 | 10,546 | 388,714 |
| Barkol Kazakh autonomous county | 34.01 | 29,236 | 85,964 |
| Yiwu county | 19.07 | 3,322 | 17,418 |
| Changji Hui autonomous prefecture | 7.98 | 119,942 | 1,503,097 |
| Changji city | 4.37 | 16,919 | 387,169 |
| Fukang city | 7.83 | 11,984 | 152,965 |
| Midong district | 1.94 | 3,515 | 180,952 |
| Hutubi county | 10.03 | 21,118 | 210,643 |
| Manas county | 9.62 | 16,410 | 170,533 |
| Qitai county | 10.07 | 20,629 | 204,796 |
| Jimsar county | 8.06 | 9,501 | 117,867 |
| Mori Kazakh autonomous county | 25.41 | 19,866 | 78,172 |
| Bortala Mongol autonomous prefecture | 9.14 | 38,744 | 424,040 |
| Bole city | 7.10 | 15,955 | 224,869 |
| Jinghe county | 8.27 | 11,048 | 133,530 |
| Wenquan county | 17.89 | 11,741 | 65,641 |
| Ili Kazakh autonomous prefecture | 1.78 | 5,077 | 285,299 |
| Kuytun city | 1.78 | 5,077 | 285,299 |
| Ili prefecture direct-controlled territories | 22.55 | 469,634 | 2,082,577 |
| Ghulja city | 4.81 | 17,205 | 357,519 |
| Ghulja county | 10.30 | 39,745 | 385,829 |
| Qapqal Xibe autonomous county | 20.00 | 32,363 | 161,834 |
| Huocheng county | 7.96 | 26,519 | 333,013 |
| Gongliu county | 29.69 | 45,450 | 153,100 |
| Xinyuan county | 43.43 | 117,195 | 269,842 |
| Zhaosu county | 48.43 | 70,242 | 145,027 |
| Tekes county | 42.25 | 56,571 | 133,900 |
| Nilka county | 45.15 | 64,344 | 142,513 |
| Tacheng prefecture | 24.21 | 216,020 | 892,397 |
| Tacheng city | 15.51 | 23,144 | 149,210 |
| Usu city | 9.93 | 18,907 | 190,359 |
| Emin county | 33.42 | 59,586 | 178,309 |
| Shawan county | 16.23 | 30,621 | 188,715 |
| Toli county | 68.98 | 55,102 | 79,882 |
| Yumin county | 32.42 | 15,609 | 48,147 |
| Hoboksar Mongol autonomous county | 22.59 | 13,051 | 57,775 |
| Altay prefecture | 51.38 | 288,612 | 561,667 |
| Altay city | 36.80 | 65,693 | 178,510 |
| Burqin county | 57.31 | 35,324 | 61,633 |
| Koktokay county | 69.68 | 56,433 | 80,986 |
| Burultokay county | 31.86 | 24,793 | 77,830 |
| Kaba county | 59.79 | 43,889 | 73,403 |
| Qinggil county | 75.61 | 40,709 | 53,843 |
| Jiminay county | 61.39 | 21,771 | 35,462 |
Some Kazakhs are nomadic herders and raise sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. These nomadic Kazakhs migrate seasonally in search of pasture for their animals. During the summer the Kazakhs live in yurts, while in winter they settle and live in modest houses made of adobe or cement blocks. Others live in urban areas and tend to be highly educated and hold much influence in integrated communities. The Islam practiced by the Kazakhs in China contains many elements of shamanism, ancestor worship, and other traditional beliefs and practices.[67]
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On one occasion , a man from Halh came to Ja Lama's camp claiming to be his brother , and demanding respect for this reason ... The Diluv Hutagt tells one story of how a Kazakh bandit was skinned alive by Dambiijantsan , and even gives ...
... the chest of a Kazakh chieftain be cut open and his heart torn out , after which the skin was flayed from his body . ... Vladimirtsov met Ja Lama in Astrakhan in September 1917.62 On March 7, 1914 , the Russian diplomatic agent in ...
and took the skin off a Kazakh; Choijon Lama ate the heart of a White Guard soldier;
For the Volga Kalmyk lama Dambijangčan ( Dambijatsan ; d . 1922 ) and his Page ( 127 ) political role in the Autonomous Government period , see Bawden 1989 , pp . 192 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 251-4 . Cf. also Lattimore 1955 , pp.9 ...
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A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135 people.
The Kazakhs were plundering and robbing on the Tibetan-Kokonor plateau in Qinghai as they came through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. There were over 7,000 of them between 1938-1941. On the Kokonor plateau, Hui (Tungans), Tibetans and Kazakhs continued to battle each other despite the Kazkah nomads being settled in demarcated pasturelands under Ma Bufang's watch in 1941.
The Deed8 Mongols (meaning 'Mongols living in an upper position') came from Xinjiang around 300 years ago and herded in the vast area of central and northwest Qinghai in the old Tayijinar Banner. Then, in the year 1943, many Kazakh swept down from Xinjiang. In pitched battles, the Mongols were outnumbered and many killed. Survivors fled to such places as Tibet, Gansu, the Qinghai lake vicinity, and Duland. Later, most of the Kazakh returned to Xinjiang and in 1959, only some of the previous 1,500 or so Mongols returned to Urtmören9. In 1983, the remaining Kazakh moved to Xinjiang. (In the past two years, about some 200-400 have returned to the Golmud administrative district, apparently dissatisfied with conditions in Xinjiang.)10
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
... разгневанный Елисхан переселился подальше от Цинхая и разместился в местности, именуемой Алтыншёке (Altinsoke), расположенной за пределами Цинхая ...
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
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