中国哈萨克族 | |
---|---|
Total population | |
1,462,588 | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Xinjiang (Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County, Mori Kazakh Autonomous County) | |
Languages | |
Kazakh, Russian, Mandarin | |
Religion | |
Sunni Islam | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Kazakhs, Turkic peoples |
Kazakhs are a Turkic ethnic group and are among the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.
During the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, the Manchus massacred the native Dzungar Oirat MongolsofDzungaria in the Dzungar genocide and colonized the depopulated area with immigrants from many parts of their empire. Kazakhs from the Kazakh Khanates were among the peoples who moved into the depopulated Dzungaria. Dzungaria was subjected to mass Kazakh settlement after the defeat of the Dzungars.[1] In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed Kazakhs to neighboring countries. In China there is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture, the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, three Kazakh autonomous counties, Aksai Kazakh Autonomous CountyinGansu, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County and Mori Kazakh Autonomous County in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.
Russians originally referred to Kazakhs as Kirghiz.
In the 19th century, Russian settlers on traditional Kirghiz land drove many Kirghiz over the border to China, causing their population to increase in China.[2] Compared to Russian-controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were certain that in an upcoming war China would defeat Russia.[3]
To escape Russians slaughtering them in 1916, Kazakhs escaped to China.[4] Xinjiang became a sanctuary for fleeing Kazakhs escaping the Russians after the Muslims faced conscription by the Russian government.[5]
Soviet persecution of Kazakhs led to Kazakhs from Soviet Kazakhstan moving to Xinjiang.[6]
An estimate of 65,000 Kirghiz, 92,000 Hui, 326,000 Kazakh, 187,000 Han and 2,984,000 Uyghur adding up to a total population of 3,730,000 in all of Xinjiang in 1941 was estimated by Toops and 4,334,000 people lived in Xinjiang according to Hoppe in 1949.[7]
The Kazakhs had settled in the Dzungaria area of Xinjiang after the Dzungar genocide by the Manchus wiped out most of the native Dzungar Oirats and fleeing from Soviet engineered famines against the Kazakhs like the Kazakh famine of 1919–1922 and Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933. The Kazakhs had defected to the Republic of China and fought against the Soviet Communist backed Uyghur Second East Turkestan Republic in the Ili Rebellion.
AKazakh chief named Khaisan was skinned alive and his heart cut out of his chest by the Oirat Mongol Ja Lama. His and another Kazakh's skin were used as a religious implement.[8] The skins were found by Cossacks in Khaisan's yurt in Muunjaviin Ulaan on 8 February 1914 under Captain Bulatov.[9][10]AWhite Guard soldier's heart was eaten by the Mongol Choijon Lama. Mongol banners were sprinkled with Russian White Guard and Chinese blood from hearts according to A. V. Burdukov.[11][12] Owen Lattimore described Mongol Sandagdorjiyn Magsarjav (1877-1927) as "a strange, romantic and sometimes savage figure." Magsarjav had served under Ungern-Sternberg. In Uriankhai, Kazakh bandits who were captured had their hearts cut out and sacrificed by Magsarjav.[13]
In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui Chinese led by General Ma Bufang massacred Kazakhs, until there were only 135 of them left.[14][15][16]
Being forced to migrate to the Kokonor plateau in Qinghai, the nomadic Kazakhs resorted to plundering and robbing as they passed through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. In 1941, Ma Bufang agreed to settle the Kazakhs in several pasturelands in an attempt to avoid further conflicts and quell aggressions. However, with the Kokonor plateau being home to Hui, Tibetans and Kazakhs, the tribes continued to periodically engage in conflict with each other.[17] Hisao Kimura, a Japanese spy, cited a Tibetan Lama telling him that Kazakhs were enemies of the Tibetans: "This land, is very unsettled compared with Inner Mongolia. To the west, the Kazakhs persecute our people, and we are powerless to stop them."[18] The Kazakhs who migrated to Iran and Pakistan via India and Tibet moved to Turkey in the 1950s with some becoming guest workers in Germany in the 1960s.[19]
During his travels in Qinghai Office of Strategic Services agent Leonard Francis Clark reported that local Muslims told him about Kazakhs invading Tibet via the Nan Shan mountains in Xinjiang over the course of eight years in the 1940s. According to them, the Kazakhs were responsible for massacring 8,000 Buddhist Mongols during that period and claimed this was only possible due to the Chinese Nationalist Government disarming the Mongols. Further inquiries did not lead to more information and when Clark questioned missionaries in Lanchow, they only confirmed occasional raids from a few stray bands of Kazakhs over the last years.[20]
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Over the space of 2 years of battles, 5,000 Kazakhs were killed by Hui Muslim Chinese and Tibetans in Gansu. There were 13,000 Kazakhs who survived out of 18,000 before the battles. They fled to India in September 1940. Tibetan cavalry numbering 1,000 attacked and fought the Kazakhs for 3 days to block their path but lost and the Kazakhs made it to the British Indian border. Many Kazakhs died when the British ordered Indian guards to shoot. When they found out they were civilians the 3,039 surviving Kazakhs were then let into India via Chuchul checkpoint in September 1941. In 3 years, 15,000 Kazakhs were killed. Eliskhan Batur Elifuglu (1919-1943) was their leader. The Kazakhs were expelled to the outskirts of Muzaffar Abad city in an open camp near the mountains by the Hindu Kashmir Majaraja Herisin who didn't want them there. 10-15 Kazakhs died daily from illness due to heavy Monsson rains over their tents. Their livestock died and Indian soldiers blocked them from leaving the camp. When Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah heard about their plight he helped them, arranging them to go to Gari Habibullah in April 1942 and then Indian Muslims hosted them in Ternova village. Illness and poor died as well as India's warm climate killed many Kazakhs. Kazakhs got residence permits to leave camp after Eliskhan appealed to Governor general Viceroy Sir Lord Halifax when he visited them in 1941. The news about the Kazakh situation appeared in newspapers so they received help from the Muslim Nawabs Hamidullah Khan of Bhohal and Osman Ali Khan of Hyderabad. 450 Kazakhs moved to the colder Bhohal province. Chatyral, Suvat and Abutabad received 700 Kazakhs. Then Delhi, Calcutta and Lahore received the Bhopal Kazakhs in 1944. Pakistan then received the majority of the Kazakhs after partition on 14 August 1947.[21]
The Kazakhs accused Tibetans and Tungans (Hui Muslims) of attacking them in Gansu, Qinghai and Tibet when they reached British India and were debriefed by British officials.[22][23]
The Kazakhs said they were fleeing from the Soviets and from the Soviet backed warlord Sheng Shicai in Xinjiang and said when they entered Qinghai and Gansu they originally numbered 18,000. These Kazakhs accused Tibetan raiders of killing their Kenzhebay, a relative of their leader Elisqan, and accused the Hui Muslim ruled Qinghai government of ignoring their complaint about the Tibetans murdering him so they decided to move in 1940 out of Qinghai towards India and Tibet and stopped at Altïnšöke on the way for pasture. The Kazakhs accused Tibet people called Qulïq of being warlike and attacking the Kazakhs and claimed that Elisqan and his Kazakhs defeated them. One of them shot a Kazakh named Omar. The Kazakhs then accused a Hui Muslim (Dungan) called Fulušan of leading an assault with Mongol and Tibetan troops against the Kazakhs in Altïnšöke (Алтыншёке).[24][25][26]
From Northern Xinjiang over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan–Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating the Kazakhs into designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other.[27]
Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai.
In Northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers and then the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh.[28]
Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 400 miles east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.[29][30]
From 1934 to 1938 Qumil Eliqsan led about 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu and Qinghai.[31]
(Only includes counties or county-equivalents containing >1% of county population. 2000)
Сounty/City | % Kazakh | Kazakh pop | Total pop |
---|---|---|---|
Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region | 6.74 | 1,245,023 | 18,459,511 |
Aksay Kazakh autonomous county | 30.5 | 2,712 | 8,891 |
Ürümqi city | 2.34 | 48,772 | 2,081,834 |
Tianshan district | 1.77 | 8,354 | 471,432 |
Saybag district | 1.27 | 6,135 | 482,235 |
Xinshi district | 1.06 | 4,005 | 379,220 |
Dongshan district | 1.96 | 1,979 | 100,796 |
Ürümqi county | 8.00 | 26,278 | 328,536 |
Karamay city | 3.67 | 9,919 | 270,232 |
Dushanzi district | 4.24 | 2,150 | 50,732 |
Karamay district | 3.49 | 5,079 | 145,452 |
Baijiantan district | 3.35 | 2,151 | 64,297 |
Urko district | 5.53 | 539 | 9,751 |
Hami city | 8.76 | 43,104 | 492,096 |
Yizhou district | 2.71 | 10,546 | 388,714 |
Barkol Kazakh autonomous county | 34.01 | 29,236 | 85,964 |
Yiwu county | 19.07 | 3,322 | 17,418 |
Changji Hui autonomous prefecture | 7.98 | 119,942 | 1,503,097 |
Changji city | 4.37 | 16,919 | 387,169 |
Fukang city | 7.83 | 11,984 | 152,965 |
Midong district | 1.94 | 3,515 | 180,952 |
Hutubi county | 10.03 | 21,118 | 210,643 |
Manas county | 9.62 | 16,410 | 170,533 |
Qitai county | 10.07 | 20,629 | 204,796 |
Jimsar county | 8.06 | 9,501 | 117,867 |
Mori Kazakh autonomous county | 25.41 | 19,866 | 78,172 |
Bortala Mongol autonomous prefecture | 9.14 | 38,744 | 424,040 |
Bole city | 7.10 | 15,955 | 224,869 |
Jinghe county | 8.27 | 11,048 | 133,530 |
Wenquan county | 17.89 | 11,741 | 65,641 |
Ili Kazakh autonomous prefecture | 1.78 | 5,077 | 285,299 |
Kuytun city | 1.78 | 5,077 | 285,299 |
Ili prefecture direct-controlled territories | 22.55 | 469,634 | 2,082,577 |
Ghulja city | 4.81 | 17,205 | 357,519 |
Ghulja county | 10.30 | 39,745 | 385,829 |
Qapqal Xibe autonomous county | 20.00 | 32,363 | 161,834 |
Huocheng county | 7.96 | 26,519 | 333,013 |
Gongliu county | 29.69 | 45,450 | 153,100 |
Xinyuan county | 43.43 | 117,195 | 269,842 |
Zhaosu county | 48.43 | 70,242 | 145,027 |
Tekes county | 42.25 | 56,571 | 133,900 |
Nilka county | 45.15 | 64,344 | 142,513 |
Tacheng prefecture | 24.21 | 216,020 | 892,397 |
Tacheng city | 15.51 | 23,144 | 149,210 |
Usu city | 9.93 | 18,907 | 190,359 |
Emin county | 33.42 | 59,586 | 178,309 |
Shawan county | 16.23 | 30,621 | 188,715 |
Toli county | 68.98 | 55,102 | 79,882 |
Yumin county | 32.42 | 15,609 | 48,147 |
Hoboksar Mongol autonomous county | 22.59 | 13,051 | 57,775 |
Altay prefecture | 51.38 | 288,612 | 561,667 |
Altay city | 36.80 | 65,693 | 178,510 |
Burqin county | 57.31 | 35,324 | 61,633 |
Koktokay county | 69.68 | 56,433 | 80,986 |
Burultokay county | 31.86 | 24,793 | 77,830 |
Kaba county | 59.79 | 43,889 | 73,403 |
Qinggil county | 75.61 | 40,709 | 53,843 |
Jiminay county | 61.39 | 21,771 | 35,462 |
Some Kazakhs are nomadic herders and raise sheep, goats, cattle and horses. These nomadic Kazakhs migrate seasonally in search of pasture for their animals. During the summer, the Kazakhs live in yurts while in winter, they are settled and live in modest houses made out of adobe or cement blocks. Others live in the urban areas and tend to be highly educated and hold much influence in integrated communities. The Islam practiced by the Kazakhs in China contains many elements of shamanism, ancestor worship and other traditional beliefs and practices.[32]
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A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135 people.
The Kazakhs were plundering and robbing on the Tibetan-Kokonor plateau in Qinghai as they came through Gansu and northern Xinjiang. There were over 7,000 of them between 1938-1941. On the Kokonor plateau, Hui (Tungans), Tibetans and Kazakhs continued to battle each other despite the Kazkah nomads being settled in demarcated pasturelands under Ma Bufang's watch in 1941.
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... разгневанный Елисхан переселился подальше от Цинхая и разместился в местности, именуемой Алтыншёке (Altinsoke), расположенной за пределами Цинхая ...
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Underlined: the 56 recognized ethnic groups | |||||||||||
Sino-Tibetan |
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Austroasiatic |
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Austronesian |
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Hmong-Mien |
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Mongolic |
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Kra–Dai |
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Tungusic |
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Turkic |
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Indo-European |
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Others |
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