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The '''milkfish''' ('''''Chanos chanos''''') is a widespread species of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]] found throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]]. It is the sole living [[species]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Chanidae]], and the only living member of the genus '''''Chanos'''''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = [[Fishes of the World]]| author-link = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref> |
The '''milkfish''' ('''''Chanos chanos''''') is a widespread species of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]] found throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]]. It is the sole living [[species]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Chanidae]], and the only living member of the genus '''''Chanos'''''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = [[Fishes of the World]]| author-link = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref>. |
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The repeating scientific name ([[tautonym]]) is from Greek {{transliteration|grc|khanos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χάνος}} ‘mouth’).<ref>{{M-W|Chanidae}} “from Greek ''chanos'' mouth”</ref><ref name="JordanEvermann1896">{{cite book | author1 = David Starr Jordan |display-authors=etal | date = 1896 | title = The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1 | publisher = Government Printing Office | pages = 414 | oclc = 1052833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xaEbAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA414 |quote= from {{lang|grc|χάνος}}, the open mouth}}</ref> |
The repeating scientific name ([[tautonym]]) is from Greek {{transliteration|grc|khanos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χάνος}} ‘mouth’).<ref>{{M-W|Chanidae}} “from Greek ''chanos'' mouth”</ref><ref name="JordanEvermann1896">{{cite book | author1 = David Starr Jordan |display-authors=etal | date = 1896 | title = The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1 | publisher = Government Printing Office | pages = 414 | oclc = 1052833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xaEbAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA414 |quote= from {{lang|grc|χάνος}}, the open mouth}}</ref> |
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== Taxonomy == |
== Taxonomy == |
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''Chanos'' is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [[Chanidae]], which has existed since the [[Early Cretaceous]]. The only surviving species is the widespread ''C. chanos''. Several fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known from the [[Paleogene]] of the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys]] and [[North Sea]]s, dating as far back as the earliest [[Eocene]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Taverne |first=Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis |title=The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes |date=2010 |work=Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships |url=https://hal.science/hal-00441945v1/file/Fara2009.pdf |access-date=2024-04-03 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b10194-6/fossil-record-gonorynchiformes-emmanuel-fara-mireille-gayet-louis-taverne |
''Chanos'' is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [[Chanidae]], which has existed since the [[Early Cretaceous]]. The only surviving species is the widespread ''C. chanos''. Several fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known from the [[Paleogene]] of the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys]] and [[North Sea]]s, dating as far back as the earliest [[Eocene]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Taverne |first=Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis |title=The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes |date=2010 |work=Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships |url=https://hal.science/hal-00441945v1/file/Fara2009.pdf |access-date=2024-04-03 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b10194-6/fossil-record-gonorynchiformes-emmanuel-fara-mireille-gayet-louis-taverne |isbn=978-0-429-06156-1}}</ref> |
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The following fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known:<ref name=":0" /> |
The following fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known:<ref name=":0" /> |
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* †''[[Chanos zignoi|C. zignoi]]'' <small>Kner & Steindachner, 1863</small> - Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy |
* †''[[Chanos zignoi|C. zignoi]]'' <small>Kner & Steindachner, 1863</small> - Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy |
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The extinct ''[[Caeus|Caeus leopoldi]]'' from the [[Early Cretaceous]] ([[Albian]]) of Italy is also sometimes placed in ''Chanos'' as ''Chanos leopoldi'', which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.<ref>{{Cite journal | |
The extinct ''[[Caeus|Caeus leopoldi]]'' from the [[Early Cretaceous]] ([[Albian]]) of Italy is also sometimes placed in ''Chanos'' as ''Chanos leopoldi'', which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taverne |first=Louis |last2=Capasso |first2=Luigi |date=2017 |title=Osteology and relationships of Caeus ( " Chanos " ) leopoldi ( Teleostei , Gonorynchiformes , Chanidae ) from the marine Albian ( Early Cretaceous ) of Pietraroja ( Campania , southern Italy ) |url=https://museodistorianaturale.comune.verona.it/media/_Musei/_StoriaNaturale/_Allegati/Biblioteca/Bollettino/Bollettino%2041(2017)/Geologia/01_Taverne_Capasso_bassa.pdf |journal=Bollettino del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona |volume=41 |pages=03–20}}</ref> |
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== Anatomy == |
== Anatomy == |
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Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include ''bandeng duri lunak'' (soft-boned milkfish, ''ikan bandeng'' is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or ''[[:id:bandeng presto|bandeng presto]]'', which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and ''bandeng asap'' or [[Smoked fish|smoked]] milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near [[Semarang]] in Central Java, and [[Sidoarjo]] near [[Surabaya]] in East Java.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} |
Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include ''bandeng duri lunak'' (soft-boned milkfish, ''ikan bandeng'' is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or ''[[:id:bandeng presto|bandeng presto]]'', which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and ''bandeng asap'' or [[Smoked fish|smoked]] milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near [[Semarang]] in Central Java, and [[Sidoarjo]] near [[Surabaya]] in East Java.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} |
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[[File:Food 乾煎虱目魚, 阿英台灣料理, 阿英台灣小吃, 台北 (18403495293).jpg|left|thumb|Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in [[Taipei]], Taiwan.]] |
[[File:Food 乾煎虱目魚, 阿英台灣料理, 阿英台灣小吃, 台北 (18403495293).jpg|left|thumb|Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in [[Taipei]], Taiwan.]] |
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Milkfish is the most popular fish in [[Taiwanese cuisine]]; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping for [[Milkfish congee|congee]], pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is a milkfish museum in [[Anping District]] and city of [[Kaohsiung]] holds an annual milkfish festival.<ref name="CNN 2015" >{{cite web |last1=Hiufu Wong |first1=Maggie |title=40 of the best Taiwanese foods and drinks |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/40-taiwan-food/index.html |website=www.cnn.com |
Milkfish is the most popular fish in [[Taiwanese cuisine]]; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping for [[Milkfish congee|congee]], pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is a milkfish museum in [[Anping District]] and city of [[Kaohsiung]] holds an annual milkfish festival.<ref name="CNN 2015" >{{cite web |last1=Hiufu Wong |first1=Maggie |title=40 of the best Taiwanese foods and drinks |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/40-taiwan-food/index.html |website=www.cnn.com |publisher=CNN |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref> |
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Milkfish is an [[oily fish]], and is rich in [[omega-3 fatty acids]]. |
Milkfish is an [[oily fish]], and is rich in [[omega-3 fatty acids]]. |
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[[File:Cardona,Rizaljf5184 09.JPG|thumbnail|Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in [[Cardona, Rizal]], the Philippines.|alt=|left]] |
[[File:Cardona,Rizaljf5184 09.JPG|thumbnail|Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in [[Cardona, Rizal]], the Philippines.|alt=|left]] |
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Fry are raised in either sea cages, large [[Saline water|saline]] ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).<ref name=fao>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Chanos_chanos/en |title=''Chanos chanos'' (Forsskal, 1775) |work=Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme |publisher=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department }}</ref> Milkfish reach sexual maturity at {{convert|1.5|kg|abbr=on}}, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach {{convert|6|kg|abbr=on}}, (eight years), 3–4 million [[egg (biology)|eggs]] are produced each breeding cycle.<ref name=fao/> This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/Aquaculture/AquacultureProfileSummary.php?ID=80&GenusName=Chanos&SpeciesName=chanos|title=Aquaculture|website=fishbase.mnhn.fr}}</ref> Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.<ref name=fao/> |
Fry are raised in either sea cages, large [[Saline water|saline]] ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).<ref name=fao>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Chanos_chanos/en |title=''Chanos chanos'' (Forsskal, 1775) |work=Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme |publisher=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department }}</ref> Milkfish reach sexual maturity at {{convert|1.5|kg|abbr=on}}, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach {{convert|6|kg|abbr=on}}, (eight years), 3–4 million [[egg (biology)|eggs]] are produced each breeding cycle.<ref name=fao/> This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/Aquaculture/AquacultureProfileSummary.php?ID=80&GenusName=Chanos&SpeciesName=chanos|title=Aquaculture|website=fishbase.mnhn.fr}}</ref> Some still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.<ref name=fao/> |
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Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, [[rotifer]]s, [[green algae]], and [[brine shrimp]], as well as the target species.<ref name=fao/><ref name=leeleung>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-S.|last2=Leung|first2=P.-S.|last3=Su|first3=M.-S. |year=1997 |title=Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') |journal=Aquaculture |volume=155 |issue=1–4 |pages=367–376 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X |
Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, [[rotifer]]s, [[green algae]], and [[brine shrimp]], as well as the target species.<ref name=fao/><ref name=leeleung>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-S.|last2=Leung|first2=P.-S.|last3=Su|first3=M.-S. |year=1997 |title=Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') |journal=Aquaculture |volume=155 |issue=1–4 |pages=367–376 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X}}</ref> They can either be intensive or semi-intensive.<ref name=fao/> Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods.<ref name=leeleung/> However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.<ref name=leeleung/> |
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Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.<ref name=fao/> Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.<ref name=fao/> The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.<ref name=fao/> |
Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.<ref name=fao/> Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.<ref name=fao/> The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.<ref name=fao/> |
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The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture. |
The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture. |
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* In 1979, pen culture was introduced in [[Laguna de Bay]], which had high primary production.<ref name=fao/> This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.<ref name=fao/> They are susceptible to disease. |
* In 1979, pen culture was introduced in [[Laguna de Bay]], which had high primary production.<ref name=fao/> This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.<ref name=fao/> They are susceptible to disease. |
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* Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.<ref name=fao/> These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.<ref name=fao/> |
* Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.<ref name=fao/> These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.<ref name=fao/> |
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Most food is natural (known as ''lab-lab'') or a combination of [[phytoplankton]] and [[macroalgae]].<ref name=fao/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gapasin|first1=R.S.J|last2=Bombeo|first2=R|last3=Lavens|first3=P|last4=Sorgeloos|first4=P|last5=Nelis|first5=H |year=1998 |title=Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') larval performance |journal=Aquaculture |volume=162 |issue=3–4 |pages=269–286 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1 |
Most food is natural (known as ''lab-lab'') or a combination of [[phytoplankton]] and [[macroalgae]].<ref name=fao/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gapasin|first1=R.S.J|last2=Bombeo|first2=R|last3=Lavens|first3=P|last4=Sorgeloos|first4=P|last5=Nelis|first5=H |year=1998 |title=Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') larval performance |journal=Aquaculture |volume=162 |issue=3–4 |pages=269–286 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1}}</ref> Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.<ref name=fao/> |
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Harvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight). Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with [[seine net]]s or [[gill net]]s. Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed. |
Harvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight). Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with [[seine net]]s or [[gill net]]s. Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed. |
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Possible parasites include [[nematode]]s, [[copepod]]s, [[protozoa]], and [[helminth]]s. Many of these are treatable with chemicals and [[antibiotics]].<ref name=fao/> |
Possible parasites include [[nematode]]s, [[copepod]]s, [[protozoa]], and [[helminth]]s. Many of these are treatable with chemicals and [[antibiotics]].<ref name=fao/> |
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=== Golden ''bangus'' === |
=== Golden ''bangus'' === |
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On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine [[Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources]], which was later on called the "golden ''bangus''".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/pangasinan/local-news/2012/04/21/fisheries-bureau-releases-golden-milkfish-217502|title=Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish |
On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine [[Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources]], which was later on called the "golden ''bangus''".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/pangasinan/local-news/2012/04/21/fisheries-bureau-releases-golden-milkfish-217502|title=Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish}}</ref> However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of [[oxygen]] in the pond to which it was transferred.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/238401/plan-to-breed-golden-bangus-dies-with-lone-specimen|title= Plan to breed 'golden' bangus dies with lone specimen|date= 28 July 2012}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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