コンテンツにスキップ

系統DNA検査

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』
系譜学的遺伝子検査から転送)

DNA(Genealogical DNA test) 調DNA

DNA3Autosomal DNADNAY-DNADNA

DNA[]


DNAGeneTree2001GeneTree1999Sorenson (SMGF)[1] SMGFYDNA[2] GeneTreeSorensonSMGFAncestry.com[3]

2000Bennett GreenspanMax BlankfeldDNA11YSTRHVR1DNA[4][5] [6] [7] [8]

200723andMe[9] autosomal DNA[10][11]

20181200DNA[12]

[]

綿使 (LHD-7)DNA

DNADNADNA(buccal swab) 23andMe AncestryDNADNAMyHeritage

[]


DNA3: Autosomal()X-DNAY-DNAmtDNA

 1-22X(1-22X

Y-DNA Y調

mtDNA 調[13]

Y-DNAmtDNA使[14] DNA""""[14][15][16]



DNA(atDNA[]

[]


DNA22[14] DNA[17] [18] SNP4181[19] DNA70SNP[20]
DNA

[]


DNA

SNPDNA




[]

Illumina使[21] SNP使IlluminaSNPSNPGEDmatch(web)
[]

DNASNP[22] 

DNA centimorgan (cM)6500cM[23] DNA)
[]

cMcM2DNASNP2DNA2250%2

In-common/Shared Matches[24] [25]Triangulation()[26]DNA

XDNA[]


XSNPDNAX2X[27]XatDNAX[28] DNAXDNAXXDNA[29]

STR[]


STR(short tandem repeats)Y-DNASTRSTR

STR使[30]

DNA(mtDNA)[]


DNADNA16,569)[31] DNA32DNA mtDNADNAmtDNA150  

mtDNAmtDNAmtDNA[32] mtDNA[33] mtDNA

[]


mtDNA3(00577-16023 (HVR1[16024-16569]HVR2[00001-00576"[34]

mtDNAHVR1HVR2HVRmtDNADNA[35] DNA[36]

[]

DNA

200,000mtDNAmtDNAmtDNADNA

mtDNA[]


Cambridge Reference Sequence(CRS)1981mtDNA1999[37] CRS



HVR116,11116111DNA4ATGC)
領域 HVR1 HVR2
CRSとの差異 111T,223T,259T,290T,319A,362C 073G,146C,153G

mtDNAのニュース[編集]


mtDNA20129 3[38]

YY-DNA[]


Y231Y23X2YY(Y-DNA)[39] (Most Recent Common Ancestor, MRCA)[40] surname project Y



DNA2: STRSNP

STR[]


STR(short tandem repeat)DNA(ATCG)12111STRSTR2surname projectDNA22[41]

SNP[]

DNA121(C  T ).

STRYSNP
Dominant Y-chromosome haplogroups in pre-colonial world populations, with possible migrations routes according to the Coastal Migration Model.

(SNP) DNA1Y-DNA SNP20,000  35,000 SNP[42] SNPSTR2

200,000400,000Y10001500[43]

2013 haplogroup A00 YDNASTRYSNPY

DNA[]

[]


2025DNADNASNP[44] 

[]


DNA調Y使

Maternal origin tests[]


For recent genealogy, exact matching on the mtDNA full sequence is used to confirm a common ancestor on the direct maternal line between two suspected relatives. Because mtDNA mutations are very rare, a nearly perfect match is not usually considered relevant to the most recent 1 to 16 generations.[45] In cultures lacking matrilineal surnames to pass down, neither relative above is likely to have as many generations of ancestors in their matrilineal information table as in the above patrilineal or Y-DNA case: for further information on this difficulty in traditional genealogy, due to lack of matrilineal surnames (or matrinames), see Matriname.[46] However, the foundation of testing is still two suspected descendants of one person. This hypothesize and test DNA pattern is the same one used for autosomal DNA and Y-DNA.

Tests for ethnicity and membership of other groups[]

European genetic structure (based on Autosomal SNPs) by PCA

As discussed above, autosomal tests usually report the ethnic proportions of the individual. These attempt to measure an individual's mixed geographic heritage by identifying particular markers, called ancestry informative markers or AIM, that are associated with populations of specific geographical areas. Geneticist Adam Rutherford has written that these tests "dont necessarily show your geographical origins in the past. They show with whom you have common ancestry today."[47]

The haplogroups determined by Y-DNA and mtDNA tests are often unevenly geographically distributed. Many direct-to-consumer DNA tests described this association to infer the test-taker's ancestral homeland.[16] Most tests describe haplogroups according to their most frequently associated continent (e.g., a "European haplogroup").[16] When Leslie Emery and collaborators performed a trial of mtDNA haplogroups as a predictor of continental origin on individuals in the Human Genetic Diversity Panel (HGDP) and 1000 Genomes (1KGP) datasets, they found that only 14 of 23 haplogroups had a success rate above 50% among the HGDP samples, as did "about half" of the haplogroups in the 1KGP.[16] The authors concluded that, for most people, "mtDNA-haplogroup membership provides limited information about either continental ancestry or continental region of origin."[16]

African ancestry[]


Y-DNA and mtDNA testing may be able to determine with which peoples in present-day Africa a person shares a direct line of part of his or her ancestry, but patterns of historic migration and historical events cloud the tracing of ancestral groups. Due to joint long histories in the US, approximately 30% of African American males have a European Y-Chromosome haplogroup[48] Approximately 58% of African Americans have at least the equivalent of one great-grandparent (13%) of European ancestry. Only about 5% have the equivalent of one great-grandparent of Native American ancestry. By the early 19th century, substantial families of Free Persons of Color had been established in the Chesapeake Bay area who were descended from free people during the colonial period; most of those have been documented as descended from white men and African women (servant, slave or free). Over time various groups married more within mixed-race, black or white communities.[49]

According to authorities like Salas, nearly three-quarters of the ancestors of African Americans taken in slavery came from regions of West Africa. The African-American movement to discover and identify with ancestral tribes has burgeoned since DNA testing became available. African Americans usually cannot easily trace their ancestry during the years of slavery through surname research, census and property records, and other traditional means. Genealogical DNA testing may provide a tie to regional African heritage.

United States – Melungeon testing[編集]

Melungeons are one of numerous multiracial groups in the United States with origins wrapped in myth. The historical research of Paul Heinegg has documented that many of the Melungeon groups in the Upper South were descended from mixed-race people who were free in colonial Virginia and the result of unions between the Europeans and Africans. They moved to the frontiers of Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee to gain some freedom from the racial barriers of the plantation areas.[50] Several efforts, including a number of ongoing studies, have examined the genetic makeup of families historically identified as Melungeon. Most results point primarily to a mixture of European and African, which is supported by historical documentation. Some may have Native American heritage as well. Though some companies provide additional Melungeon research materials with Y-DNA and mtDNA tests, any test will allow comparisons with the results of current and past Melungeon DNA studies

Native American ancestry[編集]

The pre-columbian indigenous people of the United States are called "Native Americans" in American English.[51] Autosomal testing, Y-DNA, and mtDNA testing can be conducted to determine the ancestry of Native Americans. A mitochondrial Haplogroup determination test based on mutations in Hypervariable Region 1 and 2 may establish whether a person's direct female line belongs to one of the canonical Native American Haplogroups, A, B, C, D or X. The vast majority of Native American individuals belong to one of the five identified mtDNA Haplogroups. Thus, being in one of those groups provides evidence of potential Native American descent. However, DNA ethnicity results cannot be used as a substitute for legal documentation.[52] Native American tribes have their own requirements for membership, often based on at least one of a person's ancestors having been included on tribal-specific Native American censuses (or final rolls) prepared during treaty-making, relocation to reservations or apportionment of land in the late 19th century and early 20th century. One example is the Dawes Rolls.

Cohanim ancestry[編集]

The Cohanim (or Kohanim) is a patrilineal priestly line of descent in Judaism. According to the Bible, the ancestor of the Cohanim is Aaron, brother of Moses. Many believe that descent from Aaron is verifiable with a Y-DNA test: the first published study in genealogical Y-Chromosome DNA testing found that a significant percentage of Cohens had distinctively similar DNA, rather more so than general Jewish or Middle Eastern populations. These Cohens tended to belong to Haplogroup J, with Y-STR values clustered unusually closely around a haplotype known as the Cohen Modal Haplotype (CMH). This could be consistent with a shared common ancestor, or with the hereditary priesthood having originally been founded from members of a single closely related clan.

Nevertheless, the original studies tested only six Y-STR markers, which is considered a low-resolution test. In response to the low resolution of the original 6-marker CMH, the testing company FTDNA released a 12-marker CMH signature that was more specific to the large closely related group of Cohens in Haplogroup J1.

A further academic study published in 2009 examined more STR markers and identified a more sharply defined SNP haplogroup, J1e* (now J1c3, also called J-P58*) for the J1 lineage. The research found "that 46.1% of Kohanim carry Y chromosomes belonging to a single paternal lineage (J-P58*) that likely originated in the Near East well before the dispersal of Jewish groups in the Diaspora. Support for a Near Eastern origin of this lineage comes from its high frequency in our sample of Bedouins, Yemenis (67%), and Jordanians (55%) and its precipitous drop in frequency as one moves away from Saudi Arabia and the Near East (Fig. 4). Moreover, there is a striking contrast between the relatively high frequency of J-58* in Jewish populations (»20%) and Kohanim (»46%) and its vanishingly low frequency in our sample of non-Jewish populations that hosted Jewish diaspora communities outside of the Near East."[53]

Recent phylogenetic research for haplogroup J-M267 placed the "Y-chromosomal Aaron" in a subhaplogroup of J-L862, L147.1 (age estimate 5631-6778yBP yBP): YSC235>PF4847/CTS11741>YSC234>ZS241>ZS227>Z18271 (age estimate 2731yBP).[54]

European testing[編集]

For people with European maternal ancestry, mtDNA tests are offered to determine which of eight European maternal "clans" the direct-line maternal ancestor belonged to. This mtDNA haplotype test was popularized in the book The Seven Daughters of Eve.

Benefits[編集]

Genealogical DNA tests have become popular due to the ease of testing at home and their usefulness in supplementing genealogical research. Genealogical DNA tests allow for an individual to determine with high accuracy whether he or she is related to another person within a certain time frame, or with certainty that he or she is not related. DNA tests are perceived as more scientific, conclusive and expeditious than searching the civil records. However, they are limited by restrictions on lines that may be studied. The civil records are always only as accurate as the individuals having provided or written the information.

Y-DNA testing results are normally stated as probabilities: For example, with the same surname a perfect 37/37 marker test match gives a 95% likelihood of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) being within 8 generations,[55] while a 111 of 111 marker match gives the same 95% likelihood of the MRCA being within only 5 generations back.[56]

As presented above in mtDNA testing, if a perfect match is found, the mtDNA test results can be helpful. In some cases, research according to traditional genealogy methods encounters difficulties due to the lack of regularly recorded matrilineal surname information in many cultures (see Matrilineal surname).[46]

Autosomal DNA combined with genealogical research has been used by adoptees to find their biological parents,[57] has been used to find the name and family of unidentified bodies[58][59] and by law enforcement agencies to apprehend criminals[60][61] (for example, the Contra Costa County District Attorney's office used the "open-source" genetic genealogy site GEDmatch to find relatives of the suspect in the Golden State Killer case.[62][63]). The Atlantic magazine commented in 2018 that "Now, the floodgates are open. ..a small, volunteer-run website, GEDmatch.com, has become ... the de facto DNA and genealogy database for all of law enforcement.[64]

Drawbacks[編集]

Common concerns about genealogical DNA testing are cost and privacy issues.[65] Some testing companies[66] retain samples and results for their own use without a privacy agreement with subjects.[67][68]

Autosomal DNA tests can identify relationships with good accuracy out to about 2nd cousin,[69] but they have limitations.[70][71][72] In particular, transplants of stem cell or bone marrow will produce matches with the donor. In addition, identical twins (who have identical DNA) will share higher amounts of DNA with a greater range of relatives.[73]

Testing of the Y-DNA lineage from father to son may reveal complications, due to unusual mutations, secret adoptions, and false paternity (i.e., that the perceived father in a generation is not the father indicated by written birth records). According to the Ancestry and Ancestry Testing Task Force of the American Society of Human Genetics, autosomal tests cannot detect "large portions" of DNA from distant ancestors because it has not been inherited.[74]

With the increasing popularity of the use of DNA tests for ethnicity tests, uncertainties and errors in ethnicity estimates are a drawback for Genetic genealogy. While ethnicity estimates at the continental level should be accurate (with the possible exception of East Asia and the Americas), sub-continental estimates, especially in Europe, are often inaccurate. Customers may be misinformed about the uncertainties and errors of the estimates.[75]

Some have recommended government or other regulation of ancestry testing to ensure its performance to an agreed standard.[76]

A number of law enforcement agencies attempted to coerce genetic genealogy companies that store customer's data into giving up information on their customers who could match cold case crime victims[77] or perpetrators. A number of companies fought the requests.[78]

Medical information[編集]

Though genealogical DNA test results in general have no informative medical value and are not intended to determine genetic diseases or disorders, a correlation exists between a lack of DYS464 markers and infertility, and between mtDNA haplogroup H and protection from sepsis. Certain haplogroups have been linked to longevity in some population groups.[79][80] 23andMe provides medical and trait information from their genealogical DNA test[81] and for a fee the Promethease web site analyses genealogical DNA test data from Family Tree DNA, 23andMe, or AncestryDNA for medical information.[82]

The testing of full mtDNA sequences is still somewhat controversial as it may reveal medical information. The field of linkage disequilibrium, unequal association of genetic disorders with a certain mitochondrial lineage, is in its infancy, but those mitochondrial mutations that have been linked are searchable in the genome database Mitomap.[83] Family Tree DNA's MtFull Sequence test analyses the full MtDNA genome[35] and the National Human Genome Research Institute operates the Genetic And Rare Disease Information Center[84] that can assist consumers in identifying an appropriate screening test and help locate a nearby medical center that offers such a test.

DNA in genealogy software[編集]

Some[どれ?] genealogy software programs allow recording DNA marker test results, allowing for tracking of both Y-chromosome and mtDNA tests, and recording results for relatives.[85] DNA-family tree wall charts are available.

出典・脚注[編集]



(一)^  CMMG alum launches multi-million dollar genetic testing company - Alum notes. 17. Wayne State University, School of Medicine's alumni journal. (Spring 2006). p. 1. http://www.med.wayne.edu/news_media/scribe/PDF/Alum-06-SpringScribe%5B1%5D.pdf 2013124. 

(二)^ How Big Is the Genetic Genealogy Market?.  The Genetic Genealogist. 2009219

(三)^ "Ancestry.com Launches new AncestryDNA Service: The Next Generation of DNA Science Poised to Enrich Family History Research" (Press release). 2013526201371

(四)^ Belli, Anne (2005118). Moneymakers: Bennett Greenspan. Houston Chronicle. http://www.chron.com/business/article/Moneymakers-Bennett-Greenspan-1657195.php 2013614. "Years of researching his family tree through records and documents revealed roots in Argentina, but he ran out of leads looking for his maternal great-grandfather. After hearing about new genetic testing at the University of Arizona, he persuaded a scientist there to test DNA samples from a known cousin in California and a suspected distant cousin in Buenos Aires. It was a match. But the real find was the idea for Family Tree DNA, which the former film salesman launched in early 2000 to provide the same kind of service for others searching for their ancestors." 

(五)^  National Genealogical Society Quarterly. 93. National Genealogical Society. (2005). p. 248. "Businessman Bennett Greenspan hoped that the approach used in the Jefferson and Cohen research would help family historians. After reaching a brick wall on his mother's surname, Nitz, he discovered and Argentine researching the same surname. Greenspan enlisted the help of a male Nitz cousin. A scientist involved in the original Cohen investigation tested the Argentine's and Greenspan's cousin's Y chromosomes. Their haplotypes matched perfectly." 

(六)^ Lomax, John Nova (2005414). Who's Your Daddy?. Houston Press. http://www.houstonpress.com/2005-04-14/news/who-s-your-daddy/ 2013614. "A real estate developer and entrepreneur, Greenspan has been interested in genealogy since his preteen days." 

(七)^ Dardashti, Schelly Talalay (2008330). When oral history meets genetics. The Jerusalem Post. http://www.jpost.com/Features/In-Thespotlight/When-oral-history-meets-genetics 2013614. "Greenspan, born and raised in Omaha, Nebraska, has been interested in genealogy from a very young age; he drew his first family tree at age 11." 

(八)^ Bradford, Nicole (2008224). Riding the 'genetic revolution'. Houston Business Journal. http://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/2008/02/25/smallb1.html?page=all 2013619 

(九)^ Hamilton, Anita (20081029). Best Inventions of 2008. Time. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1852747_1854493,00.html 201245 

(十)^ About Us. 23andMe. 2018610

(11)^ Autosomal DNA testing comparison chart. International Society of Genetic Genealogy Wiki. 2018610

(12)^ Regalado, Antonio (2018212). 2017 was the year consumer DNA testing blew up (). MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/610233/2017-was-the-year-consumer-dna-testing-blew-up/ 2018220 

(13)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 8)

(14)^ abcUnderstanding genetic ancestry testing. Molecular and Cultural Evolution Lab.  University College London (2016). 20161124

(15)^ "Claims of connections, therefore, between specific uniparental lineages and historical figures or historical migrations of peoples are merely speculative." Royal, Charmaine D.; Novembre, John; Fullerton, Stephanie M.; Goldstein, David B.; Long, Jeffrey C.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Clark, Andrew G. (2010-05-14). Inferring Genetic Ancestry: Opportunities, Challenges, and Implications. The American Journal of Human Genetics 86 (5): 667. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.03.011. ISSN 0002-9297. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929710001552 2017629. 

(16)^ abcdeEmery, Leslie S.; Magnaye, Kevin M.; Bigham, Abigail W.; Akey, Joshua M.; Bamshad, Michael J. (2015-02-05). Estimates of Continental Ancestry Vary Widely among Individuals with the Same mtDNA Haplogroup. The American Journal of Human Genetics 96 (2): 18393. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.12.015. ISSN 0002-9297. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929714005217 2016124. 

(17)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 70)

(18)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 68)

(19)^ Autosomal DNA  ISOGG Wiki (). isogg.org. 201723

(20)^ Best Ancestry DNA Test 2018 - Which Testing Kit is Best & How to Choose (2018110). 2018610

(21)^ Concepts  Imputation (201795). 2018610

(22)^ March - 2016 - DNAeXplained  Genetic Genealogy. dna-explained.com. 2018610

(23)^ The Danger of Distant Matches - The Genetic Genealogist (201716). 2018610

(24)^ Combs-Bennett, Shannon (2015123). How to Use AncestryDNA Shared Matches - Family Tree (). Family Tree. https://www.familytreemagazine.com/premium/ancestry-dna-shared-matches-tutorial/ 2018430 

(25)^ Lassalle, Melody (2018315). MyHeritage DNA Ups Its Game with Updated Chromosome Browser. Genealogy Research Journal. 2018430

(26)^ Southard, Diahan (2017619). Triple Play: Triangulating Your DNA Matches - Family Tree (). Family Tree. https://www.familytreemagazine.com/premium/triple-play-dna-matches-triangulation/ 2018430 

(27)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 107)

(28)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 114)

(29)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 111)

(30)^ Norrgard, Karen (2008). Forensics, DNA Fingerprinting, and CODIS. Nature Education 1:1: 35. https://www.nature.com/scitable/nated/article?action=showContentInPopup&contentPK=736. 

(31)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 9)

(32)^ M. Pickford, "Paradise lost: Mitochondrial eve refuted". SpringerLink, July 2006

(33)^ e.g. Maternal inheritance of human mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77 (11): 671519. (November 1980). Bibcode: 1980PNAS...77.6715G. doi:10.1073/pnas.77.11.6715. PMC 350359. PMID 6256757. http://www.pnas.org/content/77/11/6715.abstract. 

(34)^ mtDNA regions. Phylotree.org. 20117272011615

(35)^ abFamily Tree DNA Review (). Top 10 DNA Tests (20185). 2018519

(36)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 50)

(37)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 51)

(38)^ DNA Tests prove that the body found under a parking lot belongs to King Richard III; but was he truly a "hunchback?".  DNA Diagnostics Center (201327). 20141132018610

(39)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 30)

(40)^ Matching Y-Chromosome DNA Results. Molecular Genealogy.  Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation. 2015532011615

(41)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 35)

(42)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 41)

(43)^ Bettinger (2016, p. 40)

(44)^ Ethnicity Testing  A Conundrum (2016210). 2018610

(45)^ mtDNA matches. Smgf.org. 2011615

(46)^ abSykes, Bryan (2001). The Seven Daughters of Eve. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02018-5, pp. 29192. Sykes discusses the difficulty in genealogically tracing a maternal lineage, due to the lack of matrilineal surnames (or matrinames).

(47)^ Rutherford, Adam (2015524). So youre related to Charlemagne? You and every other living European. Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/science/commentisfree/2015/may/24/business-genetic-ancestry-charlemagne-adam-rutherford 201628 

(48)^ Patriclan: Trace Your Paternal Ancestry.  African Ancestry. 2011772011615

(49)^ Paul Heinegg, Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware[1], accessed 15 February 2008

(50)^ Paul Heinegg, Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware, accessed 15 February 2008

(51)^ Native American | Definition of Native American by Merriam-Webster. www.merriam-webster.com. 2016104

(52)^ AncestryDNA FAQ. www.ancestry.co.uk. 2018610

(53)^ Extended Y chromosome haplotypes resolve multiple and unique lineages of the Jewish priesthood. Human Genetics 126 (5): 70717. (November 2009). doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0727-5. PMC 2771134. PMID 19669163. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2771134/. 

(54)^ Mas, V. (2013). Y-DNA Haplogroup J1 phylogenetic tree. doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.741212. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.741212. 

(55)^ ftdna.com (kept uptodate). http://www.familytreedna.com/faq/answers/default.aspx?faqid=9#922 "FAQ: ...how should the genetic distance at 37 Y-chromosome STR markers be interpreted?" Retrieved 2012-01-13.

(56)^ ftdna.com (kept uptodate). http://www.familytreedna.com/faq/answers/default.aspx?faqid=9#925 "FAQ: ...how should the genetic distance at 111 Y-chromosome STR markers be interpreted?" Retrieved 2012-01-13.

(57)^ Randall, Caresa Alexander (20161116). Adopted man finds biological family with help of AncestryDNA (). Deseret News. https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865667270/Adopted-man-finds-biological-family-with-help-of-AncestryDNA.html 2018430 

(58)^ "Buckskin Girl" case: DNA breakthrough leads to ID of 1981 murder victim (). CBS News. (2018312). https://www.cbsnews.com/news/buckskin-girl-case-groundbreaking-dna-tech-leads-to-id-of-1981-murder-victim/ 2018430 

(59)^ Augenstein, Seth (201859). DNA Doe Project IDs 2001 Motel Suicide, Using Genealogy (). Forensic Magazine. https://www.forensicmag.com/news/2018/05/dna-doe-project-ids-2001-motel-suicide-using-genealogy 2018519 

(60)^ Zhang, Sarah (2018327). How a Genealogy Website Led to the Alleged Golden State Killer (). The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/04/golden-state-killer-east-area-rapist-dna-genealogy/559070/ 2018430 

(61)^ Green, Sara Jean (2018518). Investigators use DNA, genealogy database to ID suspect in 1987 double homicide (). The Seattle Times. https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/crime/investigators-use-dna-genealogy-database-to-id-suspect-in-1987-double-homicide/ 2018519 

(62)^ Regalado, Antonio. Investigators searched a million peoples DNA to find Golden State serial killer. 2018610

(63)^ Lillis, Ryan; Kasler, Dale; Chabria, Anita (2018427). 'Open-source' genealogy site provided missing DNA link to East Area Rapist, investigator says. The Sacramento Bee. http://www.sacbee.com/news/local/crime/article209987599.html 2018427 

(64)^ Zhang, Sarah (2018519). The Coming Wave of Murders Solved by Genealogy (). The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/05/the-coming-wave-of-murders-solved-by-genealogy/560750/ 2018519 

(65)^ Vergano, Dan (2013613). DNA detectives seek origins of you.  USA Today. 201675

(66)^ Estes, Roberta (20151230). 23andMe, Ancestry and Selling Your DNA Information. DNAeXplained  Genetic Genealogy. 201675

(67)^ Seife, Charles (20131127). 23andMe Is Terrifying, but Not for the Reasons the FDA Thinks; The genetic-testing company's real goal is to hoard your personal data.  Scientific American. 201675

(68)^ Family tree and ancestry inference: is there a need for a 'generational' consent?. BMC Medical Ethics 16 (1): 87. (December 2015). doi:10.1186/s12910-015-0080-2. PMC 4673846. PMID 26645273. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-015-0080-2. 

(69)^ Understanding genetic ancestry testing. www.ucl.ac.uk. 2018613

(70)^ Collins, Nick (2013317). DNA ancestry tests branded 'meaningless'.  The Telegraph. 201675

(71)^ Thomas, Mark (2013225). To claim someone has 'Viking ancestors' is no better than astrology. The Guardian. 201675

(72)^ Reference (20161122). What is genetic ancestry testing?. Genetics Home Reference.  U.S National Library of Medicine. 20161124

(73)^ DNA doesn't lie! (2017101). 2018613

(74)^ Harmon, Katherine (2010514). Genetic ancestry testing is an inexact science, task force says.  Scientific American. 201675

(75)^ Concepts  Calculating Ethnicity Percentages, DNA Explained

(76)^ Genetics. The illusive gold standard in genetic ancestry testing (). Science 325 (5936): 3839. (July 2009). doi:10.1126/science.1173038. PMID 19574373. http://science.sciencemag.org/content/325/5936/38. 

(77)^ O'Rourke, Ciara (2017816). Solving a Murder Mystery With Ancestry Websites. 2018428 Template:Cite web accessdate 

(78)^ Robbins, Rebecca (2018428). The Golden State Killer Case Was Cracked with a Genealogy Web Site (). Scientific American / STAT. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-golden-state-killer-case-was-cracked-with-a-genealogy-web-site1/ 2018430 

(79)^ Mitochondrial DNA inherited variants are associated with successful aging and longevity in humans. FASEB Journal 13 (12): 153236. (September 1999). doi:10.1096/fasebj.13.12.1532. PMID 10463944. 

(80)^ European Journal of Human Genetics (2001) 9, pp 701±707. 2018613

(81)^ The Pros and Cons of the Main Autosomal DNA Testing Companies (). The DNA Geek. (20161114). http://thednageek.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-the-main-autosomal-dna-testing-companies/ 2018519 

(82)^ Bettinger, Blaine (2013922). What Else Can I Do With My DNA Test Results? (). The Genetic Genealogist. https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/2013/09/22/what-else-can-i-do-with-my-dna-test-results/ 2018519 

(83)^ Mitomap.  Mitomap. 2011615

(84)^ Genetic And Rare Disease Information Center (GARD). Genome.gov (2011322). 2011615

(85)^ Bettinger, Blaine (2013922). What Else Can I Do With My DNA Test Results?. The Genetic Genealogist. 20161124

関連項目[編集]

ヒトY染色体ハプログループ系統樹
Y染色体アダム (Y-MRCA)
A0 A1
A1a A1b
A1b1 BT
B CT
DE CF
D E C F
G H IJK
IJ K
I J K1 K2
L T MS NO P K2*
N O Q R

ヒトミトコンドリアDNAハプログループ系統樹

  ミトコンドリア・イブ (L)    
L0 L1 L5 L2 L6 L4 L3  
  M   N  
M7   M8   M9   D G Q N1   N2   N9   A O S X   R  
M7a C Z E I W Y R0   R9   B JT P  U
HV F J T K
H V