m Reverted edits by 2806:2F0:7020:C40D:75CC:83CB:B47:BCA2 (talk) to last revision by Selwynabraham: nonconstructive edits
|
taxobox cleanup
|
||
(36 intermediate revisions by 25 users not shown) | |||
Line 3: | Line 3: | ||
{{Speciesbox |
{{Speciesbox |
||
| image = Sacred lotus Nelumbo nucifera.jpg |
| image = Sacred lotus Nelumbo nucifera.jpg |
||
| image_caption = |
| image_caption = Lotus flower |
||
| genus = Nelumbo |
| genus = Nelumbo |
||
| species = nucifera |
| species = nucifera |
||
Line 12: | Line 12: | ||
* ''Nymphaea nelumbo'' |
* ''Nymphaea nelumbo'' |
||
}} |
}} |
||
[[File:British 19th Century, East Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), late 19th century, NGA 52325.jpg|alt=drawing of the east Indian lotus, gouache on oriental paper|thumb|British 19th |
[[File:British 19th Century, East Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), late 19th century, NGA 52325.jpg|alt=drawing of the east Indian lotus, gouache on oriental paper|thumb|British 19th century, East Indian Lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera''), late 19th century, [[National Gallery of Art]], NGA 52325]] |
||
⚫ |
'''''Nelumbo nucifera''''', also known as ''' |
||
⚫ | '''''Nelumbo nucifera''''', also known as '''sacred lotus''', '''Indian lotus''',<ref>{{cite web |title=Sacred Lotus |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/sacred-lotus |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=4 May 2023 }}</ref> or simply '''lotus''', is one of two [[extant taxon|extant]] species of aquatic plant in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Nelumbonaceae]]. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the family [[Nymphaeaceae]].<ref>Janice Glimn-Lacy, Peter B. Kaufman, ''Botany Illustrated: Introduction to Plants, Major Groups, Flowering Plant Families'', p. 79, 2006, Springer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=oGCsQhPbLGYC&dq=nelumbo+water+lily+-planner&pg=PT170 google books]</ref> |
||
⚫ |
Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the [[flood plain]]s of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately |
||
⚫ | Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the [[flood plain]]s of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife, the remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pond [[silt]]s in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony. |
||
Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.2.236 |title=Long-living lotus: Germination and soil -irradiation of centuries-old fruits, and cultivation, growth, and phenotypic abnormalities of offspring |year=2002 |last1=Shen-Miller |first1=J. |last2=Schopf |first2=J. W. |last3=Harbottle |first3=G. |last4=Cao |first4=R.-j. |last5=Ouyang |first5=S. |last6=Zhou |first6=K.-s. |last7=Southon |first7=J. R. |last8=Liu |first8=G.-h. |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=236–47 |pmid=21669732}}</ref> Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of [[longevity]]. |
Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.2.236 |title=Long-living lotus: Germination and soil -irradiation of centuries-old fruits, and cultivation, growth, and phenotypic abnormalities of offspring |year=2002 |last1=Shen-Miller |first1=J. |last2=Schopf |first2=J. W. |last3=Harbottle |first3=G. |last4=Cao |first4=R.-j. |last5=Ouyang |first5=S. |last6=Zhou |first6=K.-s. |last7=Southon |first7=J. R. |last8=Liu |first8=G.-h. |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=236–47 |pmid=21669732}}</ref> Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of [[longevity]]. |
||
It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to {{convert|1400|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}} in the southern Himalayas<ref name=Mukherjee2010>{{cite journal |author1=Pulok K. Mukherjee |author2=Debajyoti Mukherjee |author3=Amal K. Maji |author4=S. Rai |author5=Michael Heinrich |year=2010 |title=The sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)– phytochemical and therapeutic profile |journal=Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=407–422 |doi=10.1211/jpp.61.04.0001 |pmid=19298686 |s2cid=85342386 |doi-access=free }}</ref>), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the [[Amur region]]; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as "''Nelumbo komarovii''"), with isolated locations at the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Zhang2015">{{cite journal |author1=Yi Zhang |author2=Xu Lu |author3=Shaoxiao Zeng |author4=Xuhui Huang |author5=Zebin Guo |author6=Yafeng Zheng |author7=Yuting Tian |author8=Baodong Zheng |year=2015 |title=Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: a review |journal=Phytochem Rev |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=321–334 |doi=10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9 |bibcode=2015PChRv..14..321Z |s2cid=16527010 }}</ref> Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations.<ref name="Zhang2015"/> It has a very long history ({{circa}} 3,000 years) of being [[Agriculture|cultivated]] for its edible seeds<ref name="Zhang2015"/> and is commonly cultivated in [[water garden]]s.<ref name=Mukherjee2010/> It is the [[National emblem|national flower]] of India and Vietnam. |
It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to {{convert|1400|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}} in the southern Himalayas<ref name=Mukherjee2010>{{cite journal |author1=Pulok K. Mukherjee |author2=Debajyoti Mukherjee |author3=Amal K. Maji |author4=S. Rai |author5=Michael Heinrich |year=2010 |title=The sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)– phytochemical and therapeutic profile |journal=Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=407–422 |doi=10.1211/jpp.61.04.0001 |pmid=19298686 |s2cid=85342386 |doi-access=free }}</ref>), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the [[Amur region]]; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as "''Nelumbo komarovii''"), with isolated locations at the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name="Zhang2015">{{cite journal |author1=Yi Zhang |author2=Xu Lu |author3=Shaoxiao Zeng |author4=Xuhui Huang |author5=Zebin Guo |author6=Yafeng Zheng |author7=Yuting Tian |author8=Baodong Zheng |year=2015 |title=Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: a review |journal=Phytochem Rev |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=321–334 |doi=10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9 |bibcode=2015PChRv..14..321Z |s2cid=16527010 }}</ref> Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations.<ref name="Zhang2015"/> It has a very long history ({{circa}} 3,000 years) of being [[Agriculture|cultivated]] for its edible seeds<ref name="Zhang2015"/> and is commonly cultivated in [[water garden]]s.<ref name=Mukherjee2010/> It is the [[National emblem|national flower]] of India and Vietnam. |
||
== Names == |
|||
''Nelumbo nucifera'' is also known as Egyptian bean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hémardinquer |first=Jean-Jacques |date=August 1974 |title=Hakon Hjelmqvist, « A find of Nelumbo nucifera from old Cyprus with some notes on the history of the species », reprint from Botaniska Notiser, Lund, vol. 125, 1972, pp. 383–388. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0395264900165321/type/journal_article |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |page=968 |doi=10.1017/S0395264900165321 |s2cid=165461309 |issn=0395-2649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coneè. |first=Kiple, Kenneth F., 1939-2016. Ornelas, Kriemhild |title=The Cambridge world history of food. |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-511-46868-7 |page=277 |oclc=852391634}}</ref> |
|||
==Classification== |
==Classification== |
||
Line 34: | Line 32: | ||
[[File:Lotus flower core - carpellary receptacle 09.jpg|thumb|[[Carpel]]lary [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] of lotus]] |
[[File:Lotus flower core - carpellary receptacle 09.jpg|thumb|[[Carpel]]lary [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] of lotus]] |
||
The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to {{convert|200|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth |
The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to {{convert|200|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth.<ref name="Kew">{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:605422-1 |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> The [[peltate]] leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of {{convert|1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera – Gaertn. |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Nelumbo+nucifera |publisher=[[Plants for a Future]] |access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref><ref>Cook, Water Plants of the World (see below) loc. cit.</ref> The leaves may be as large as {{convert|80|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="RHS"/> |
||
=== Flower === |
=== Flower === |
||
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to {{convert| |
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to {{convert|35|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="RHS">{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera {{!}} sacred lotus |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/11438/Nelumbo-nucifera/Details |publisher=[[Royal Horticultural Society]] |access-date=11 June 2019 |date=1999}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{cite journal |last=<not recorded> |date=January 13, 1934 |title=<not recorded> |journal=Gardener's Chronicle |volume=95 (third series) |issue=<not recorded> |pages=28–29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cook |first=Christopher D. K. |date=1974 |title=Water Plants of the World |location=The Hague, Netherlands |publisher=W. Junk Publisher |page=332 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hurley |first=Captain Frank |date=1924 |title=Pearls and Savages |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |page=385 plus photo and caption p. 368 }}</ref> |
||
Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety ''qian ban lian'' ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in a single blossom |
Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety ''qian ban lian'' ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in a single blossom<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.victoria-adventure.org/more_than_links/eigi_thousand_petals.html |title=Thousand Petals |last=Nitasaka |first=Eiji |date=n.d. |access-date=September 1, 2021 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and the Japanese variety ''ohmi myoren'' ("strange lotus") can have between 2000 and 5000 petals,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/nobuflickr/893593415/ |title=Ohmi-Myoren/ Rare Lotus- Flicker |last=<not stated> |date=July 25, 2007 |access-date=September 1, 2021 }}</ref> the greatest number recorded for any species of plant. |
||
Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to [[Thermogenic plants|regulate]] the [[temperature]] of its [[flower]]s within a narrow range, just as humans and other [[warm-blooded]] animals do.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Yoon, Carol Kaesuk |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E4D7113CF932A35753C1A960958260 |title=Heat of Lotus Attracts Insects And Scientists |date=1996-10-01 |access-date=2012-11-14 |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the [[University of Adelaide]] in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the [[Adelaide Botanic Garden]]s maintained a temperature of {{convert|30|–|35|°C|°F}}, even when the air temperature dropped to {{convert|10|°C|°F}}. They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded]] [[insect]] [[pollinator]]s. Studies published in the journals ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' and ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences]]'' in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of [[thermoregulation]] in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include ''[[Symplocarpus foetidus]]''<ref name="thorington">{{cite journal |last1=Thorington |first1=Katherine K. |title=Pollination and Fruiting Success in the Eastern Skunk Cabbage |journal=The Journal of Biospheric Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |access-date=2022-02-02 |archive-date=2016-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224021947/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''[[ |
Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to [[Thermogenic plants|regulate]] the [[temperature]] of its [[flower]]s within a narrow range, just as humans and other [[warm-blooded]] animals do.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Yoon, Carol Kaesuk |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E4D7113CF932A35753C1A960958260 |title=Heat of Lotus Attracts Insects And Scientists |date=1996-10-01 |access-date=2012-11-14 |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the [[University of Adelaide]] in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the [[Adelaide Botanic Garden]]s maintained a temperature of {{convert|30|–|35|°C|°F}}, even when the air temperature dropped to {{convert|10|°C|°F}}. They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract [[Ectotherm|cold-blooded]] [[insect]] [[pollinator]]s. Studies published in the journals ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' and ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences]]'' in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of [[thermoregulation]] in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include ''[[Symplocarpus foetidus]]''<ref name="thorington">{{cite journal |last1=Thorington |first1=Katherine K. |title=Pollination and Fruiting Success in the Eastern Skunk Cabbage |journal=The Journal of Biospheric Science |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=April 1999 |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |access-date=2022-02-02 |archive-date=2016-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224021947/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mmcmenam/journal.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''[[Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum]]''.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water. |
||
=== Seed === |
=== Seed === |
||
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ong |first=H.C. |editor-last1=Flach |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Rumawas |editor-first2=F. |year=1996 |chapter=Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner |title=Plant Resources of South-East Asia |location=Leiden, Netherlands |publisher=Backhuys Publishers |pages=131–133 |isbn=90-73348-51-X}}</ref>{{rp|132}} Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully [[germinated]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2445863 |author=Shen-Miller |year=1995 |last2=Mudgett |first2=M. B. |last3=William Schopf |first3=J. |last4=Clarke |first4=S. |last5=Berger |first5=R. |title=Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: Ancient sacred lotus from China |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |issue=11 |volume=82 |pages=1367–1380 |jstor=2445863 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= |
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ong |first=H.C. |editor-last1=Flach |editor-first1=M. |editor-last2=Rumawas |editor-first2=F. |year=1996 |chapter=Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner |title=Plant Resources of South-East Asia |location=Leiden, Netherlands |publisher=Backhuys Publishers |pages=131–133 |isbn=90-73348-51-X}}</ref>{{rp|132}} Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully [[germinated]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2445863 |author=Shen-Miller |year=1995 |last2=Mudgett |first2=M. B. |last3=William Schopf |first3=J. |last4=Clarke |first4=S. |last5=Berger |first5=R. |title=Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: Ancient sacred lotus from China |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |issue=11 |volume=82 |pages=1367–1380 |jstor=2445863 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shen-Miller, J. |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=236–247 |title=Long-living lotus: germination and soil gamma-irradiation of centuries-old fruits, and cultivation, growth, and phenotypic abnormalities of offspring |doi=10.3732/ajb.89.2.236 |quote=Sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'') has been cultivated as a crop in Asia for thousands of years. A ≈1300-year-old lotus fruit, recovered from an originally cultivated but now dry lakebed in northeastern China, is the oldest germinated and directly 14C-dated fruit known. In 1996, we traveled to the dry lake at Xipaozi Village, China, the source of the old viable fruits. |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |year=2002 |pmid=21669732}}</ref> |
||
The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to ''[[Nymphaea caerulea]]'', but possesses similar chemistry. Both ''Nymphaea caerulea'' and ''Nelumbo nucifera'' contain the alkaloids [[nuciferine]] and [[aporphine]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} |
The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to ''[[Nymphaea caerulea]]'', but possesses similar chemistry. Both ''Nymphaea caerulea'' and ''Nelumbo nucifera'' contain the alkaloids [[nuciferine]] and [[aporphine]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} |
||
The [[genome]] of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ming |first1=Ray |last2=VanBuren |first2=Robert |last3=Liu |first3=Yanling |last4=Yang |first4=Mei |last5=Han |first5=Yuepeng |display-authors=etal |year=2013 |title=Genome of the long-living sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) |journal=Genome Biology |volume=14 |issue=5 |page=R41 |doi=10.1186/gb-2013-14-5-r41 |pmid=23663246 |pmc=4053705 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sacred Lotus Genome Sequence Enlightens Scientists |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130510180252.htm |newspaper=Science Daily |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists sequence genome of 'sacred lotus,' which likely holds anti-aging secrets |author=Wolpert, Stuart |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/scientists-sequence-genome-of-245577.aspx |newspaper=UCLA Newsroom |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref> |
The [[genome]] of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ming |first1=Ray |last2=VanBuren |first2=Robert |last3=Liu |first3=Yanling |last4=Yang |first4=Mei |last5=Han |first5=Yuepeng |display-authors=etal |year=2013 |title=Genome of the long-living sacred lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) |journal=Genome Biology |volume=14 |issue=5 |page=R41 |doi=10.1186/gb-2013-14-5-r41 |pmid=23663246 |pmc=4053705 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sacred Lotus Genome Sequence Enlightens Scientists |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130510180252.htm |newspaper=Science Daily |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists sequence genome of 'sacred lotus,' which likely holds anti-aging secrets |author=Wolpert, Stuart |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/scientists-sequence-genome-of-245577.aspx |newspaper=UCLA Newsroom |date=10 May 2013 |access-date=13 May 2013}}</ref> A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then. |
||
== Cultivation == |
== Cultivation == |
||
The sacred lotus grows in water up to {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} deep. The minimum water depth is about {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}}. In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and [[flower]]ing. The sacred lotus [[Germination|germinates]] at temperatures above {{convert|13|C}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Sou |first1=S. Y. |last2=Fujishige |first2=N. |date=1995 |title=Cultivation comparison of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) between China and Japan |journal=Journal of Zhejiang Agricultural Sciences |volume=4 |pages=187–189}}</ref> Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA [[hardiness zone]]s 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |title=Dictionary of Gardening |date=1992 |publisher=Macmillan Press |others=Huxley, Anthony, |
The sacred lotus grows in water up to {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} deep. The minimum water depth is about {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}}. In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and [[flower]]ing. The sacred lotus [[Germination|germinates]] at temperatures above {{convert|13|C}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Sou |first1=S. Y. |last2=Fujishige |first2=N. |date=1995 |title=Cultivation comparison of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) between China and Japan |journal=Journal of Zhejiang Agricultural Sciences |volume=4 |pages=187–189}}</ref> Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA [[hardiness zone]]s 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |title=Dictionary of Gardening |date=1992 |publisher=Macmillan Press |others=Huxley, Anthony, 1920–1992., Griffiths, Mark, 1963–, Royal Horticultural Society |isbn=978-0-333-47494-5 |location=London |oclc=25202760}}</ref> In the [[growing season]], from April to September (in the [[Northern Hemisphere|northern hemisphere]]), the average daytime temperature needed is {{convert|23|to|27|C}}.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Vegetables |last=Phillips |first=Roger |date=1995 |publisher=Macmillan |others=Rix, Martyn |isbn=978-0-333-62640-5 |location=London |oclc=32465255 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/vegetables0000phil }}</ref> In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of [[dormancy]]. The [[tuber]]s are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below {{convert|0|C}}.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |title=Container production and post-harvest handling of Lotus (Nelumbo) and Micropropagation of herbaceous Peony (Paeonia) |last=Tian |first=Daike |publisher=Auburn University |year=2008 |location=Auburn }}</ref> If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with [[vermiculite]] or [[perlite]]. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Masuda |first1=Junichiro |last2=Urakawa |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Ozaki |first3=Yukio |last4=Okubo |first4=Hiroshi |date=2006-01-01 |title=Short Photoperiod Induces Dormancy in Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=39–45 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcj008 |pmid=16287906 |pmc=2000761}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:605422-1 |title=Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. {{!}} Plants of the World Online |publisher=Kew Science |access-date=2017-11-19}}</ref> |
||
=== Planting === |
=== Planting === |
||
The sacred lotus requires a [[nutrient]]-rich and [[loam]]y soil.<ref name=":8" /> In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Daike |last2=Tilt |first2=Ken M. |last3=Sibley |first3=Jeff L. |last4=Woods |first4=Floyd M. |last5=Dane |first5=Fenny |date=2009-06-01 |title=Response of Lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) to Planting Time and Disbudding |journal=HortScience |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=656–659 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.44.3.656 |doi-access=free}}</ref> a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds<ref>{{Cite book |title=Flowering plants, dicotyledons: magnoliid, hamamelid, and caryophyllid families |others=Kubitzki, Klaus, 1933-, Rohwer, J. G. (Jens G.), |
The sacred lotus requires a [[nutrient]]-rich and [[loam]]y soil.<ref name=":8" /> In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Daike |last2=Tilt |first2=Ken M. |last3=Sibley |first3=Jeff L. |last4=Woods |first4=Floyd M. |last5=Dane |first5=Fenny |date=2009-06-01 |title=Response of Lotus (''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn.) to Planting Time and Disbudding |journal=HortScience |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=656–659 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.44.3.656 |doi-access=free}}</ref> a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds<ref>{{Cite book |title=Flowering plants, dicotyledons: magnoliid, hamamelid, and caryophyllid families |others=Kubitzki, Klaus, 1933-, Rohwer, J. G. (Jens G.), 1958–, Bittrich, V. (Volker), 1954– |isbn=978-3-642-08141-5 |location=Berlin |oclc=861705944 |last1=Kubitzki |first1=Klaus |last2=Rohwer |first2=Jens G. |last3=Bittrich |first3=Volker |date=2011-01-28}}</ref> or directly into a flooded field.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants |last=Lim |first=T. K. |date=2016 |publisher=Springer, Cham |isbn=978-3-319-26061-7 |pages=55–109 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-26062-4_5 |chapter=Nelumbo nucifera}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=La-ongsri |first1=Woranuch |last2=Trisonthi |first2=Chusie |last3=Balslev |first3=Henrik |date=2009-08-01 |title=Management and use of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' Gaertn. in Thai wetlands |journal=Wetlands Ecology and Management |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=279–289 |doi=10.1007/s11273-008-9106-6 |bibcode=2009WetEM..17..279L |s2cid=25530088 |issn=0923-4861}}</ref> There are several other propagation ways via [[seed]]s or [[bud]]s.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, [[tissue culture]] is a promising propagation method for the future to produce high volumes of uniform, [[True to type|true-to-type]], disease-free materials.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |title=Exporting lotus to Asia : An agronomic and physiological study: a report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation |last1=Nguyen |first1=Q.V. |last2=Hicks |first2=D. |author3=Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (Australia) |author3-link=Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation |author4=Asian Foods Research and Development |date=2001 |publisher=RIRDC |isbn=978-0-642-58254-6 |location=[[Barton, Australian Capital Territory|Barton, A.C.T.]] |oclc=52647644}}</ref> |
||
The first step of the cultivation is to [[plough]] the dry field. One round of [[manure]] is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low<ref name=":10" /> and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately {{convert|4,000|/ha|/acre}} with grid spacing of {{convert|1.2x2|m|ftin|0}}<ref name=":11" /> are used to plant directly into the [[mud]] {{convert|10–15|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} below the [[Topsoil|soil surface]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=Root crops|last=Kay |first=Daisy E. |year=1987 |publisher=Tropical Development and Research Institute |isbn=978-0-85954-200-5 |edition=2nd |location=London |oclc=19298279}}</ref> |
The first step of the cultivation is to [[plough]] the dry field. One round of [[manure]] is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low<ref name=":10" /> and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately {{convert|4,000|/ha|/acre}} with grid spacing of {{convert|1.2x2|m|ftin|0}}<ref name=":11" /> are used to plant directly into the [[mud]] {{convert|10–15|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} below the [[Topsoil|soil surface]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=Root crops|last=Kay |first=Daisy E. |year=1987 |publisher=Tropical Development and Research Institute |isbn=978-0-85954-200-5 |edition=2nd |location=London |oclc=19298279}}</ref> |
||
Line 60: | Line 58: | ||
=== Harvest === |
=== Harvest === |
||
[[File:LotusBud0048a.jpg|200px|thumb|Lotus bud]] |
[[File:LotusBud0048a.jpg|200px|thumb|Lotus bud]] |
||
[[File: A budding lotus flower.jpg|200px|thumb| |
[[File: A budding lotus flower.jpg|200px|thumb|Lotus bud in advanced stage of bloom]] |
||
The [[stolon]] is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.<ref name=":10" /> |
The [[stolon]] is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.<ref name=":10" /> |
||
Line 79: | Line 77: | ||
* Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.<ref name=":6" /> |
* Pre-mature (early) cultivars are harvested before the end of July, serotinous (late) cultivars from September on, and mid-serotinous or mid-matutinal cultivars are in between these harvest times. Using pre-mature cultivars, rhizomes can be harvested earlier and sold for a higher price.<ref name=":6" /> |
||
* [[Adlittoral]], deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from {{convert|10|to|20|cm|abbr=on}} depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good for [[frying]] purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes are [[starch]]-rich.<ref name=":6" /> |
* [[Adlittoral]], deep, and intermediate cultivars are distinguished according to the depth in which the rhizomes grow underground. Adlittoral cultivars range from {{convert|10|to|20|cm|abbr=on}} depth and are often premature. They develop faster due to higher temperatures in surface soil layers. When harvested in July, adlittorals have higher yields than deeper-growing cultivars, but not necessarily when harvested in September. Rhizomes of adlittoral cultivars are crisp and good for [[frying]] purposes. Deep cultivars grow more than {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} deep. They are often serotinous and can harvest high yields. Their rhizomes are [[starch]]-rich.<ref name=":6" /> |
||
The main popular ''Nelumbo nucifera'' cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3. |
The main popular ''Nelumbo nucifera'' cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September.<ref name=":6" /> In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in [[Guangdong]] and [[Japan]], the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.<ref name=":11" /> |
||
==== Seed lotus ==== |
==== Seed lotus ==== |
||
Line 92: | Line 90: | ||
The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as [[Morrison Polkinghorne]] to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aussie artist turning pagoda flowers into art |url=https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle-arts-culture/aussie-artist-turning-pagoda-flowers-art |author=Pann Rethea |date=22 March 2020 |publisher=Phenon Penh Post}}</ref> |
The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as [[Morrison Polkinghorne]] to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aussie artist turning pagoda flowers into art |url=https://www.phnompenhpost.com/lifestyle-arts-culture/aussie-artist-turning-pagoda-flowers-art |author=Pann Rethea |date=22 March 2020 |publisher=Phenon Penh Post}}</ref> |
||
One example of a flower lotus is |
One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of ''N. nucifera'' sized between {{convert|5 and 8|cm|in|frac=}}. Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of [[petal]]s, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the [[rhizome]], their [[seed]]s are often too small or too hard to be eatable.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihuhua.com/huahui/wanlian.html |access-date=2021-09-07 |title=碗莲_碗莲的养殖方法 |language=zh}}</ref> |
||
The sacred lotus may be crossed with the [[yellow lotus]] to produce [[interspecific hybrid]]s. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi |
The sacred lotus may be crossed with the [[yellow lotus]] to produce [[interspecific hybrid]]s. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI15757-21 |title='Jiang Luopao': A Nelumbo Cultivar with Deep Purple-red and Bowl-shaped Flowers |year=2021 |last1=Du |first1=Fengfeng |last2=Liu |first2=Xiaojing |last3=Chang |first3=Yajun |last4=Li |first4=Naiwei |last5=Ding |first5=Yuesheng |last6=Yao |first6=Dongrui |journal=HortScience |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=847–848 |s2cid=236278282 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
||
=== Farming === |
=== Farming === |
||
Line 112: | Line 110: | ||
==== Rhizomes ==== |
==== Rhizomes ==== |
||
[[File:Lotus root.jpg|thumb|Lotus [[ |
[[File:Lotus root.jpg|thumb|Lotus [[rhizome]]s]] |
||
[[File:JaRenkonLotus11R.jpg|thumb|Boiled, sliced lotus roots used in various Asian cuisines]] |
[[File:JaRenkonLotus11R.jpg|thumb|Boiled, sliced lotus roots used in various Asian cuisines]] |
||
The [[rhizome]]s of lotus ({{Lang-zh|t=|c=蓮藕|p=lián-ǒu}}, {{Lang-ja|蓮根|translit=renkon}}, {{Lang-hi|कमल ककड़ी|translit= |
The [[rhizome]]s of lotus ({{Lang-zh|t=|c=蓮藕|p=lián-ǒu}}, {{Lang-ja|蓮根|translit=renkon}}, {{Lang-ko|연군or蓮根|translit=yeongun}}, {{Lang-hi|कमल ककड़ी|translit=kamala kakaṛī}}, [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] Beeh, {{Lang-te|అల్లిదుంప|translit=alli'dumpa}})<ref>[https://andhrabharati.com/dictionary/index.php?w=%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF], Andhra Bharati Dictionary; Lotus-root - అల్లిదుంప; అల్లికాయ.</ref> are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan ([[Sindh]]), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or [[Pickling|pickled]] in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic).<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |last1=YU |first1=Xin |display-authors=etal |year=2002 |title=Progress in the Research on Post-harvest Physiology and Storage Techniques of Nelumbo nucifera gaertn [J]. |journal=Guangzhou Food Science and Technology |volume=3 |page=019 }}</ref><ref name=":19">Tian, N., et al. "Isolation and preparation of flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn by preparative reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography." ''Se pu= Chinese journal of chromatography'' 25.1 (2007): 88–92.</ref> Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits.<ref name=":18" /> Salads with [[prawn]]s, [[sesame oil]] or [[coriander]] leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fast [[food browning|browning]] rate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=X. |last2=Jiang |first2=Y. |last3=Li |first3=Y. |last4=Lin |first4=W. |year=2003 |title=Effects of 4-hexylresorcinol (4-HR) on browning and quality of fresh-cut lotus |journal=Food Science |volume=24 |pages=142–145 }}</ref><ref>M.A. Rojas-Graüa, M.S. Tapiab, O. Martín-Bellosoa. Using polysaccharide-based edible coatings to maintain the quality of fresh-cut Fuji apples. LWT Food Science and Technology, 41 (2008), pp. 139–147</ref> [[Lotus root tea]] is consumed in Korea. |
||
Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as '' |
Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as ''kamala kakaṛī'' in [[Hindi]]) is cooked as a dry curry or [[Curry|Sabzî]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 December 2020 |title=9 Nutritious Lotus Root Recipes To Try |url=https://www.honestfoodtalks.com/lotus-root-recipes-renkon/ |website=Honest Food Talks}}</ref> |
||
Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsuchiya |first1=T. |last2=Nohara |first2=S. |year=1989 |title=Growth and life span of the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. in lake Kasumigaura, Japan |journal=Aquatic Botany |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1016/0304-3770(89)90094-6 }}</ref> |
Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsuchiya |first1=T. |last2=Nohara |first2=S. |year=1989 |title=Growth and life span of the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. in lake Kasumigaura, Japan |journal=Aquatic Botany |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1016/0304-3770(89)90094-6 |bibcode=1989AqBot..36...87T }}</ref> |
||
Rhizomes contain high amounts of [[starch]] (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.<ref>Mukherjee PK. et al. Isolation, estimation and characterization of starch from rhizomes of Nelumbo nuciferaGaertn (Fam. Nymphaeaceae). Ind Drugs 1995; 32: 392–397.</ref> The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an [[adjuvant]] in the [[Tablet (pharmacy)|preparation of tablets]].<ref>Mukherjee PK. et al. Pharmaceutical application of starch isolated from Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Fam. Nymphaeaceae). Ind J Pharm Sci 1996; 58: 59–66.</ref> When dried, ''N. nucifera'' is also made into [[flour]], another popular use of this vegetable.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> |
Rhizomes contain high amounts of [[starch]] (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.<ref>Mukherjee PK. et al. Isolation, estimation and characterization of starch from rhizomes of Nelumbo nuciferaGaertn (Fam. Nymphaeaceae). Ind Drugs 1995; 32: 392–397.</ref> The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an [[adjuvant]] in the [[Tablet (pharmacy)|preparation of tablets]].<ref>Mukherjee PK. et al. Pharmaceutical application of starch isolated from Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Fam. Nymphaeaceae). Ind J Pharm Sci 1996; 58: 59–66.</ref> When dried, ''N. nucifera'' is also made into [[flour]], another popular use of this vegetable.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> |
||
Line 134: | Line 132: | ||
Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and [[Mold (fungus)|mold infestation]]; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such as [[food irradiation|radiation processing]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhat |first1=R |last2=Sridhar |first2=KR |last3=Karim |first3=AA |last4=Young |first4=CC |last5=Arun |first5=AB |year=2009 |title=Influence of c-radiation on the nutritional and functional qualities of lotus seed flour |journal=J Agric Food Chem |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=9524–9531 |doi=10.1021/jf902287e |pmid=19778060 }}</ref> |
Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and [[Mold (fungus)|mold infestation]]; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such as [[food irradiation|radiation processing]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhat |first1=R |last2=Sridhar |first2=KR |last3=Karim |first3=AA |last4=Young |first4=CC |last5=Arun |first5=AB |year=2009 |title=Influence of c-radiation on the nutritional and functional qualities of lotus seed flour |journal=J Agric Food Chem |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=9524–9531 |doi=10.1021/jf902287e |pmid=19778060 }}</ref> |
||
Lotus seeds can be processed into [[Mooncake|moon cake]], lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of [[Lotus seed paste|paste]], fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (''phool makhana''), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional |
Lotus seeds can be processed into [[Mooncake|moon cake]], lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of [[Lotus seed paste|paste]], fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (''phool makhana''), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds.<ref name="auto">Wu C, Xia Y, Tang X (2013) Optimization of the fermentation process for lotus rice-wine production by response surface methodology. Mod Food Sci Technol 29:1675–1679</ref><ref name=":16" /> [[Lotus seed tea]] is consumed in Korea, and [[lotus embryo tea]] is consumed in China and Vietnam.<ref name=":16" /> |
||
==== Stems ==== |
==== Stems ==== |
||
Young lotus [[Plant stem|stems]] are used as a salad ingredient in [[Vietnamese cuisine]] and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as ''keang som sai bua'' ({{lang-th|แกงส้มสายบัว}}, lotus stem sour soup) and ''keang kati sai bua'' ({{lang|th|แกงกะทิสายบัว}}, lotus stem in coconut milk curry) |
Young lotus [[Plant stem|stems]] are used as a salad ingredient in [[Vietnamese cuisine]] and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as ''keang som sai bua'' ({{lang-th|แกงส้มสายบัว}}, lotus stem sour soup) and ''keang kati sai bua'' ({{lang|th|แกงกะทิสายบัว}}, lotus stem in coconut milk curry). |
||
⚫ | In[[North India|northern]] and [[East India|eastern]] regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, ''kamala gaṭṭē kī sabzī'' ({{Lang-hi|कमल गट्टे की सब्ज़ी|translit=}}) and an appetizer, ''kamala kakaṛī pakauṛē'' ({{Lang-hi|कमल ककड़ी पकौड़े}}). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In [[Kerala]] ({{Lang-ml|താമര}}) and [[Tamil Nadu]], this end product is called ''thamara vathal''. |
||
In the [[Philippines]], an indigenous variety called ''tukal'' is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season. |
|||
⚫ |
In northern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, '' |
||
==== Leaves ==== |
==== Leaves ==== |
||
[[File:Cỗ_trung_thu.JPG|thumb|right|Vietnamese-style green young rice ([[cốm]]) wrapped in lotus leaves, traditionally consumed with ripe bananas and tea during autumn at the beginning of the rice harvest]] |
[[File:Cỗ_trung_thu.JPG|thumb|right|Vietnamese-style green young rice ([[cốm]]) wrapped in lotus leaves, traditionally consumed with ripe bananas and tea during autumn at the beginning of the rice harvest]] |
||
In China and Korea, [[Lotus tea#lotus leaf tea|lotus leaf tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연잎차|translit=yeon'ip-cha}}) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming [[rice]] and [[sticky rice]] and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as ''[[lo mai gai]]'' in Chinese cuisine or ''[[kao hor bai bua]]'' ( |
In China and Korea, [[Lotus tea#lotus leaf tea|lotus leaf tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연잎차|translit=yeon'ip-cha}}) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming [[rice]] and [[sticky rice]] and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as ''[[lo mai gai]]'' in Chinese cuisine or ''[[kao hor bai bua]]'' ({{Lang-th|ข้าวห่อใบบัว}}), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine. |
||
Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, ''[[cốm]]'', which is eaten in [[autumn]]. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice. |
Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, ''[[cốm]]'', which is eaten in [[autumn]]. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice. |
||
Line 150: | Line 150: | ||
[[File:Yeonkkot-cha.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus flower tea]]]] |
[[File:Yeonkkot-cha.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus flower tea]]]] |
||
In Korea, [[lotus flower tea]] (연꽃차 |
In Korea, [[lotus flower tea]] ({{Lang-ko|연꽃차|translit=yeon'kkot-cha}}) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus. |
||
The [[stamen]]s can be dried and made into a fragrant [[herbal tea]] ({{zh|t=[[wikt:蓮花|蓮花]] |
The [[stamen]]s can be dried and made into a fragrant [[herbal tea]] ({{zh|t=[[wikt:蓮花|蓮花]][[wikt:茶|茶]]|p=liánhuā cha|cy=lìhnfāa chah}}), or used to impart a scent to [[tea]] leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This [[Vietnamese lotus tea]] is called ''trà sen'', ''chè sen'', or ''chè ướp sen''. |
||
==== Risks ==== |
==== Risks ==== |
||
Line 158: | Line 158: | ||
=== Use in water treatment === |
=== Use in water treatment === |
||
''Nelumbo nucifera'' shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |author1=Thongchai Kanabkaew |author2=Udomphon Puetpaiboon |date=2004 |title=Aquatic plants for domestic wastewater Treatment: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) systems |url=http://www.thaiscience.info/journals/Article/SONG/10462464.pdf |journal=Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol |volume=26 }}</ref> and heavy metals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |author1=H.M. Anawar |author2=A. Garcia-Sanchez |author3=M. Tari Kul Alam |author4=M. Majibur Rahman |date=2008 |title=Phytofiltration of water polluted with arsenic and heavy metals |url=http://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |journal=International Journal of Environment and Pollution |volume=33 |doi=10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |doi-broken-date= |
''Nelumbo nucifera'' shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |author1=Thongchai Kanabkaew |author2=Udomphon Puetpaiboon |date=2004 |title=Aquatic plants for domestic wastewater Treatment: Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) systems |url=http://www.thaiscience.info/journals/Article/SONG/10462464.pdf |journal=Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol |volume=26 }}</ref> and heavy metals.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |author1=H.M. Anawar |author2=A. Garcia-Sanchez |author3=M. Tari Kul Alam |author4=M. Majibur Rahman |date=2008 |title=Phytofiltration of water polluted with arsenic and heavy metals |url=http://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |journal=International Journal of Environment and Pollution |volume=33 |doi=10.1504/IJEP.2008.0194 |doi-broken-date=31 January 2024}}</ref><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Gallego |first1=S. M. |author2=M. P. Benavides |author3=M. L. Tomaro |date=1996 |title=Effect of heavy metal ion excess on sunflower leaves: evidence for involvement of oxidative stress |journal=Plant Science |volume=121 |issue=2 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1016/s0168-9452(96)04528-1 }}</ref> It is able to grow in variable water conditions<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iwgs.org/lotus-care-sheet/ |title=Lotus care sheet |date=16 December 2011 }}</ref> and in low light intensity.<ref name=":0" /> Various studies show the successful use of ''N. nucifera'' to counteract water [[eutrophication]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286218077 |title=Ecological restoration using Trapa bispinosa and Nelumbo nucifera on eutrophic water body in Baizangdian Lake |last=Liu |first=C.-Q. |date=December 2013 |journal=Wetland Science |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=510–514 }}</ref> The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses [[algae]] growth in ''N. nucifera'' aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.<ref name=":0" /> Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. ''N. nucifera'' is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as [[Pontederia crassipes|water hyacinth]]). It also assimilates nitrogen ("[[denitrification]]") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.<ref name=":0" /> Through [[rhizofiltration]], heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day [[incubation period]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|author=Virendra Mishra |date=2009 |title=Accumulation of Cadmium and Copper from Aqueous Solutions using Indian Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) |journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=110–112 |doi=10.1579/0044-7447-38.2.110 |pmid=19431942 |bibcode=2009Ambio..38..110M |s2cid=43473128}}</ref> The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;<ref name=":2" /> however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study. |
||
=== Storage and commercialization === |
=== Storage and commercialization === |
||
Line 174: | Line 174: | ||
==Chemical composition== |
==Chemical composition== |
||
The flavonol [[miquelianin]], as well as the alkaloids (+)-(1''R'')-[[coclaurine]] and (−)-(1''S'')-[[norcoclaurine]], can be found in the leaves of ''N. nucifera''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kashiwada |first1=Y. |last2=Aoshima |first2=A. |last3=Ikeshiro |first3=Y. |last4=Chen |first4=Y. P. |last5=Furukawa |first5=H. |last6=Itoigawa |first6=M. |last7=Fujioka |first7=T. |last8=Mihashi |first8=K. |last9=Cosentino |first9=L. M. |year=2005 |title=Anti-HIV benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera, and structure–activity correlations with related alkaloids |journal=Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=443–448 |doi=10.1016/j.bmc.2004.10.020 |pmid=15598565 |last10=Morris-Natschke |first10=S. L. |last11=Lee |first11=K. H.}}</ref> The plant also contains [[nuciferine]], neferine, and many other [[benzylisoquinoline alkaloids]] with medicinal properties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Menéndez-Perdomo |first1=Ivette M |last2=Facchini |first2=Peter J |date=November 2018 |title=Benzylisoquinoline Alkaloids Biosynthesis in Sacred Lotus |journal=Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=E2899 |doi=10.3390/molecules23112899 |issn=1420-3049 |pmid=30404216 |pmc=6278464 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Menendez-Perdomo, I. M. and P. J. Facchini (2020). "Isolation and characterization of two O-methyltransferases involved in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)." J Biol Chem 295(6): |
The flavonol [[miquelianin]], as well as the alkaloids (+)-(1''R'')-[[coclaurine]] and (−)-(1''S'')-[[norcoclaurine]], can be found in the leaves of ''N. nucifera''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kashiwada |first1=Y. |last2=Aoshima |first2=A. |last3=Ikeshiro |first3=Y. |last4=Chen |first4=Y. P. |last5=Furukawa |first5=H. |last6=Itoigawa |first6=M. |last7=Fujioka |first7=T. |last8=Mihashi |first8=K. |last9=Cosentino |first9=L. M. |year=2005 |title=Anti-HIV benzylisoquinoline alkaloids and flavonoids from the leaves of Nelumbo nucifera, and structure–activity correlations with related alkaloids |journal=Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=443–448 |doi=10.1016/j.bmc.2004.10.020 |pmid=15598565 |last10=Morris-Natschke |first10=S. L. |last11=Lee |first11=K. H.}}</ref> The plant also contains [[nuciferine]], neferine, and many other [[benzylisoquinoline alkaloids]] with medicinal properties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Menéndez-Perdomo |first1=Ivette M |last2=Facchini |first2=Peter J |date=November 2018 |title=Benzylisoquinoline Alkaloids Biosynthesis in Sacred Lotus |journal=Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=E2899 |doi=10.3390/molecules23112899 |issn=1420-3049 |pmid=30404216 |pmc=6278464 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Menendez-Perdomo, I. M. and P. J. Facchini (2020). "Isolation and characterization of two O-methyltransferases involved in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)." J Biol Chem 295(6): 1598–1612 doi:10.1074/jbc.RA119.011547 |
||
{{PMID|31914404}}</ref> |
{{PMID|31914404}}</ref> |
||
Line 209: | Line 209: | ||
}} |
}} |
||
All parts of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as [[Traditional medicine|folk medicines]], [[Ayurveda]], [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese traditional medicine]], and [[oriental medicine]].<ref name=":13">Khare CP. ''Indian Herbal Remedies: Rational Western Therapy, Ayurvedic, and Other Traditional Usage, Botany'', 1st edn. USA: Springer, 2004: 326–327.</ref><ref name=":14">Sridhar KR, Bhat R. Lotus: a potential nutraceutical source. ''J Agri Technol'' 2007; '''3''': 143–155.</ref> |
All parts of ''Nelumbo nucifera'' are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as [[Traditional medicine|folk medicines]], [[Ayurveda]], [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese traditional medicine]], and [[oriental medicine]].<ref name=":13">Khare CP. ''Indian Herbal Remedies: Rational Western Therapy, Ayurvedic, and Other Traditional Usage, Botany'', 1st edn. USA: Springer, 2004: 326–327.</ref><ref name=":14">Sridhar KR, Bhat R. Lotus: a potential nutraceutical source. ''J Agri Technol'' 2007; '''3''': 143–155.</ref> In Chinese medicine, seeds are still used as {{transliteration|zh|lian zi xin}} ({{lang|zh|蓮子心}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.025 |title=Neferine inhibits cultured hepatic stellate cell activation and facilitates apoptosis: A possible molecular mechanism |year=2011 |last1=Ding |first1=Hui |last2=Shi |first2=Jinghong |last3=Wang |first3=Ying |last4=Guo |first4=Jia |last5=Zhao |first5=Juhui |last6=Dong |first6=Lei |journal=European Journal of Pharmacology |volume=650 |issue=1 |pages=163–169 |pmid=20969858}}</ref> |
||
Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically [[active substance]]s.<ref name=":15" /> Especially in China, [[lotus seed]]s are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the [[Han dynasty|Han Dynasty]], lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".<ref>{{cite journal | |
Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically [[active substance]]s.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal |doi=10.1211/jpp.61.04.0001 |pmid=19298686 |title=The sacred lotus(Nelumbo nucifera)- phytochemical and therapeutic profile |journal=Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=407–22 |year=2009 |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Pulok K |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Debajyoti |last3=Maji |first3=Amal K |last4=Rai |first4=S |last5=Heinrich |first5=Michael |s2cid=85342386 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Especially in China, [[lotus seed]]s are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the [[Han dynasty|Han Dynasty]], lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Z |year=2008 |title=Nutrient value and processing of lotus seed |journal=Acad Period Agric Prod Process |volume=2008 |pages=42–43 }}</ref> Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly in [[Jianning County|Jianning]] (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") and [[Guangchang County|Guangchang]] ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zheng | first1 = B | last2 = Zheng | first2 = J | last3 = Zeng | first3 = S | year = 2003 | title = Analysis of the nutritional compositionin chinese main lotus seed varieties | journal = Acta Nutr Sin | volume = 25 | pages = 153–156 }}</ref> |
||
These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9| title = Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: A review| journal = Phytochemistry Reviews| volume = 14| issue = 3| page = 321| year = 2015| last1 = Zhang| first1 = Yi| last2 = Lu| first2 = Xu| last3 = Zeng| first3 = Shaoxiao| last4 = Huang| first4 = Xuhui| last5 = Guo| first5 = Zebin| last6 = Zheng| first6 = Yafeng| last7 = Tian| first7 = Yuting| last8 = Zheng| first8 = Baodong| bibcode = 2015PChRv..14..321Z| s2cid = 16527010}}</ref> It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as [[functional food]].<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /> Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of N. nucifera as both "food and [[Medicinal plants|medicine]]."<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.04.011|title = Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn from outer space mutation|year = 2007|last1 = Wu|first1 = J.|last2 = Zheng|first2 = Y.|last3 = Chen|first3 = T.|last4 = Yi|first4 = J.|last5 = Qin|first5 = L.|last6 = Rahman|first6 = K.|last7 = Lin|first7 = W.|journal = Food Chemistry|volume = 105|issue = 2|pages = 540–547}}</ref> |
These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s11101-015-9401-9 | title = Nutritional composition, physiological functions and processing of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) seeds: A review | journal = Phytochemistry Reviews | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | page = 321 | year = 2015 | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Yi | last2 = Lu | first2 = Xu | last3 = Zeng | first3 = Shaoxiao | last4 = Huang | first4 = Xuhui | last5 = Guo | first5 = Zebin | last6 = Zheng | first6 = Yafeng | last7 = Tian | first7 = Yuting | last8 = Zheng | first8 = Baodong | bibcode = 2015PChRv..14..321Z | s2cid = 16527010}}</ref> It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as [[functional food]].<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /> Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of ''N. nucifera'' as both "food and [[Medicinal plants|medicine]]."<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.04.011 |title = Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn from outer space mutation |year = 2007 |last1 = Wu |first1 = J. |last2 = Zheng |first2 = Y. |last3 = Chen |first3 = T. |last4 = Yi |first4 = J. |last5 = Qin |first5 = L. |last6 = Rahman |first6 = K. |last7 = Lin |first7 = W. |journal = Food Chemistry |volume = 105 |issue = 2 |pages = 540–547}}</ref> |
||
==== Rhizomes ==== |
==== Rhizomes ==== |
||
Line 229: | Line 229: | ||
Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including [[Vitamin B1|VB1]], [[Riboflavin|VB2]], [[Vitamin B6|VB6]] and [[Vitamin E]].<ref>Zheng B, Zheng J, Zeng S (2003) Analysis of the nutritional composition in Chinese main lotus seed varieties. Acta Nutr Sin 25:153–156</ref><ref>Wu J, Zheng Y, Chen T, Yi J, Qin L, Rahman K, Lin W (2007) Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. from outer space mutation. Food Chem 105:540–547</ref> |
Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including [[Vitamin B1|VB1]], [[Riboflavin|VB2]], [[Vitamin B6|VB6]] and [[Vitamin E]].<ref>Zheng B, Zheng J, Zeng S (2003) Analysis of the nutritional composition in Chinese main lotus seed varieties. Acta Nutr Sin 25:153–156</ref><ref>Wu J, Zheng Y, Chen T, Yi J, Qin L, Rahman K, Lin W (2007) Evaluation of the quality of lotus seed of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. from outer space mutation. Food Chem 105:540–547</ref> |
||
The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in ''N. nucifera'' seeds can help combat high [[Hypertension|blood pressure]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], and [[gallstone]]s. |
The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in ''N. nucifera'' seeds can help combat high [[Hypertension|blood pressure]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], and [[gallstone]]s.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} |
||
After lotus [[Germination|seed germination]], crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.<ref>Xia Y (2012) Effect of germination on chemical and functional properties of lotus seeds. Food Sci 33:91–98</ref><ref name=":16" /> |
After lotus [[Germination|seed germination]], crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.<ref>Xia Y (2012) Effect of germination on chemical and functional properties of lotus seeds. Food Sci 33:91–98</ref><ref name=":16" /> |
||
Line 247: | Line 247: | ||
{{main|Sacred lotus in religious art}}<!--which discusses and links to "Lotus throne"--> |
{{main|Sacred lotus in religious art}}<!--which discusses and links to "Lotus throne"--> |
||
''Nelumbo nucifera'' is a lotus species with historical cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,<ref>{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera (sacred lotus) |url=http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/nelumbo-nucifera-sacred-lotus |publisher=Kew |access-date=26 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530010810/https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/nelumbo-nucifera-sacred-lotus |archive-date=30 May 2014 }}</ref> representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. In Christianity, the lotus flower is often associated with the apostle [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]] and his coming to India.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |
''Nelumbo nucifera'' is a lotus species with historical cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,<ref>{{cite web |title=Nelumbo nucifera (sacred lotus) |url=http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/nelumbo-nucifera-sacred-lotus |publisher=Kew |access-date=26 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530010810/https://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/nelumbo-nucifera-sacred-lotus |archive-date=30 May 2014 }}</ref> representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. In Christianity, the lotus flower is often associated with the apostle [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]] and his coming to India.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2417-2}}.</ref> The lotus flower is also mentioned in the bible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bible Gateway passage: Job 40:21–22 – New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Job%2040%3A21-22&version=NIV |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=Bible Gateway |language=en}}</ref> |
||
In Asian art, a [[lotus throne]] is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in [[Buddhist art]] and [[Hindu art]] and is often seen in [[Jain art]]. Originating in [[Indian art]], it followed [[Indian religions]] to East Asia in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.<ref>Jansen, Eva Rudy, ''The Book of Hindu Imagery: The Gods and their Symbols'', p. 18, 1993, Binkey Kok Publications, {{ISBN|9074597076}}, 9789074597074, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1iASyoae8cMC&pg=PA18 google books]</ref><ref>Krishan, Yuvrajmm, Tadikonda, Kalpana K., ''The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development'', pp. 65, 78, 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|8121505658}}, 9788121505659, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA65 google books]</ref><ref>Moore, Albert C., Klein, Charlotte, ''Iconography of Religions: An Introduction'', p. 148, 1977, Chris Robertson, {{ISBN|0800604881}}, 9780800604882, [https://books.google.com/books?id=chWcZcYcyeQC&pg=PA149 google books]</ref><ref>Rodrigues, H, [http://www.mahavidya.ca/2016/04/22/the-sacred-lotus-symbol/ "The Sacred Lotus Symbol"], ''Mahavidya'', 2016</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shakti |first=M. Gupta |title=Plant Myths and Traditions in India |year=1971 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Netherlands]] |pages=65–67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref> |
In Asian art, a [[lotus throne]] is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in [[Buddhist art]] and [[Hindu art]] and is often seen in [[Jain art]]. Originating in [[Indian art]], it followed [[Indian religions]] to [[East Asia]] in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.<ref>Jansen, Eva Rudy, ''The Book of Hindu Imagery: The Gods and their Symbols'', p. 18, 1993, Binkey Kok Publications, {{ISBN|9074597076}}, 9789074597074, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1iASyoae8cMC&pg=PA18 google books]</ref><ref>Krishan, Yuvrajmm, Tadikonda, Kalpana K., ''The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development'', pp. 65, 78, 1996, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{ISBN|8121505658}}, 9788121505659, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA65 google books]</ref><ref>Moore, Albert C., Klein, Charlotte, ''Iconography of Religions: An Introduction'', p. 148, 1977, Chris Robertson, {{ISBN|0800604881}}, 9780800604882, [https://books.google.com/books?id=chWcZcYcyeQC&pg=PA149 google books]</ref><ref>Rodrigues, H, [http://www.mahavidya.ca/2016/04/22/the-sacred-lotus-symbol/ "The Sacred Lotus Symbol"], ''Mahavidya'', 2016</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shakti |first=M. Gupta |title=Plant Myths and Traditions in India |year=1971 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |location=[[Netherlands]] |pages=65–67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stIUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref> |
||
The Nelumbo nucifera, which is also called (Nilufar Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of [[Anahita]] in the [[Persepolis]]. The lotus flower was included in [[Kaveh the blacksmith]]'s [[Derafsh]] and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire [[Derafsh Kaviani]]. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians [[Solar Hijri calendar]]. |
The ''Nelumbo nucifera'', which is also called ([[Niloufar|Nilufar]] Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of [[Anahita]] in the [[Persepolis]]. The lotus flower was included in [[Kaveh the blacksmith]]'s [[Derafsh]] and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire [[Derafsh Kaviani]]. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians [[Solar Hijri calendar]]. |
||
The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Virani |first=Shafique |date=2005-01-01 |title=Symphony of Gnosis: A Self-Definition of the Ismaili Ginan Literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/36984287 |journal=Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought |page=507}}</ref> |
The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Virani |first=Shafique |date=2005-01-01 |title=Symphony of Gnosis: A Self-Definition of the Ismaili Ginan Literature |url=https://www.academia.edu/36984287 |journal=Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought |page=507}}</ref> |
||
Line 275: | Line 275: | ||
* {{cite web|url=http://vietnam-online.org/lotus-symbol-in-vietnamese-culture|title=Lotus Symbol in Vietnamese Culture|access-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530074316/http://vietnam-online.org/lotus-symbol-in-vietnamese-culture|archive-date=2015-05-30}} |
* {{cite web|url=http://vietnam-online.org/lotus-symbol-in-vietnamese-culture|title=Lotus Symbol in Vietnamese Culture|access-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530074316/http://vietnam-online.org/lotus-symbol-in-vietnamese-culture|archive-date=2015-05-30}} |
||
* [https://fishgraphy.com/beginners-guide-to-red-tiger-lotus-maintenance/ Lotus Flower] for aquarium |
|||
{{Symbols of India}} |
{{Symbols of India}} |
Nelumbo nucifera | |
---|---|
Lotus flower | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Proteales |
Family: | Nelumbonaceae |
Genus: | Nelumbo |
Species: |
N. nucifera
|
Binomial name | |
Nelumbo nucifera | |
Synonyms | |
Nelumbo nucifera, also known as sacred lotus, Indian lotus,[1] or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the family Nymphaeaceae.[2]
Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the flood plains of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife, the remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pond silts in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony.
Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China.[3] Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of longevity.
It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to 1,400 m or 4,600 ft in the southern Himalayas[4]), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the Amur region; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as "Nelumbo komarovii"), with isolated locations at the Caspian Sea.[5] Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations.[5] It has a very long history (c. 3,000 years) of being cultivated for its edible seeds[5] and is commonly cultivated in water gardens.[4] It is the national flower of India and Vietnam.
The lotus is often confused with the true water lilies of the genus Nymphaea, in particular N. caerulea, the "blue lotus." In fact, several older systems, such as the Bentham & Hooker system (which is widely used in the Indian subcontinent), refer to the lotus by its old synonym, Nymphaea nelumbo.[citation needed]
While all modern plant taxonomy systems agree that this species belongs in the genus Nelumbo, the systems disagree as to which family Nelumbo should be placed in or whether the genus should belong in its own unique family and order. According to the APG IV system, N. nucifera, N. lutea, and their extinct relatives belong in Proteales with the protea flowers[6] due to genetic comparisons. Older systems, such as the Cronquist system, place N. nucifera and its relatives in the order Nymphaeles based on anatomical similarities.[7] According to the APG IV classification, the closest relatives of Nelumbo include the sycamores (Platanaceae).
The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to 200 cm (6 ft 7 in) long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth.[8] The peltate leaf blade or lamina can have a horizontal spread of 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[9][10] The leaves may be as large as 80 cm (31 in) in diameter.[11]
The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to 35 cm (14 in) in diameter.[11][12][13][14]
Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety qian ban lian ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in a single blossom[15] and the Japanese variety ohmi myoren ("strange lotus") can have between 2000 and 5000 petals,[16] the greatest number recorded for any species of plant.
Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers within a narrow range, just as humans and other warm-blooded animals do.[17] Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the University of Adelaide in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the Adelaide Botanic Gardens maintained a temperature of 30–35 °C (86–95 °F), even when the air temperature dropped to 10 °C (50 °F). They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract cold-blooded insect pollinators. Studies published in the journals Nature and Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in the field of thermoregulation in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus[18] and Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum.[citation needed] The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water.
A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with a brownish coat.[19]: 132 Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated.[20][21]
The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to Nymphaea caerulea, but possesses similar chemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine.[citation needed]
The genome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013.[22][23][24] A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then.
The sacred lotus grows in water up to 2.5 m (8 ft) deep. The minimum water depth is about 30 cm (12 in). In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and flowering. The sacred lotus germinates at temperatures above 13 °C (55 °F).[25] Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA hardiness zones 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5); the higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants.[26] In the growing season, from April to September (in the northern hemisphere), the average daytime temperature needed is 23 to 27 °C (73 to 81 °F).[27] In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of dormancy. The tubers are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to the air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).[28] If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with vermiculiteorperlite. Care must be taken to fully insulate the tubers.[29][30]
The sacred lotus requires a nutrient-rich and loamy soil.[26] In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere),[31] a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds[32] or directly into a flooded field.[33][34] There are several other propagation ways via seedsorbuds.[28] Furthermore, tissue culture is a promising propagation method for the future to produce high volumes of uniform, true-to-type, disease-free materials.[35]
The first step of the cultivation is to plough the dry field. One round of manure is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low[34] and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately 4,000 per hectare (1,600/acre) with grid spacing of 1.2 by 2 metres (3 ft 11 in × 6 ft 7 in)[35] are used to plant directly into the mud 10–15 cm (3+7⁄8–5+7⁄8 in) below the soil surface.[36]
The stolon is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water.[34]
The first leaves and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during the colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months.[34]
Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After sun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos.[34][28]
The rhizomes mature to a suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months.[36] Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained.[28][29][34][36][37] The large, starch-rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil.[34] In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools.[28] In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting is fully replaced by machines.[25]
Lotus varieties have been classified according to their use into three types: rhizome lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature.[35] Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with 200,000 ha (490,000 acres), followed by seed lotus with 20,000 ha (49,000 acres).[38]
Rhizome lotus cultivars produce a higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers.[38][35]
Cultivars can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types:
The main popular Nelumbo nucifera cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September.[38] In Australia, the cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in Guangdong and Japan, the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu.[35]
The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number of carpels and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes.[35] The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between 1,020 and 1,800 g (36 and 63 oz).[38] Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia.[35]
Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively for ornamental purpose, producing many flowers and the lowest plant height.[38]
The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in the number of petals (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights.[35]
The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as Morrison Polkinghorne to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia.[39]
One example of a flower lotus is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of N. nucifera sized between 5 and 8 centimetres (2.0 and 3.1 in). Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of petals, and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the rhizome, their seeds are often too small or too hard to be eatable.[40]
The sacred lotus may be crossed with the yellow lotus to produce interspecific hybrids. A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances.[41]
About 70% of lotus for human consumption is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at 300,000 hectares (740,000 acres).[28] A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields like rice.[38]
The most widely used system is crop rotation with rice and vegetables. This system is applicable if the propagule (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in the same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays either freeorterricolous vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach, are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after the harvest of the lotus.[38]
Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotus rhizome, although it is ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between the rhizomes into the drained field. The rhizomes are then harvested next March.[38]
A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such as fish, shrimp, or crab in the same field.[38] A more efficient use of the water for both, the aquatic animal and the lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern.[42]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this articlebyadding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
|
The rhizomes of lotus (Chinese: 蓮藕; pinyin: lián-ǒu, Japanese: 蓮根, romanized: renkon, Korean: 연군or蓮根, romanized: yeongun, Hindi: कमल ककड़ी, romanized: kamala kakaṛī, Sindhi Beeh, Telugu: అల్లిదుంప, romanized: alli'dumpa)[43] are consumed as a vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan (Sindh), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or pickled in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic).[44][45] Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits.[44] Salads with prawns, sesame oilorcoriander leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by a fast browning rate.[46][47] Lotus root tea is consumed in Korea.
Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as kamala kakaṛīinHindi) is cooked as a dry curry or Sabzî.[48]
Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly.[49]
Rhizomes contain high amounts of starch (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture is comparable to a raw potato.[50] The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an adjuvant in the preparation of tablets.[51] When dried, N. nucifera is also made into flour, another popular use of this vegetable.[44][45]
Lotus pip tea is consumed in Korea.
Fresh lotus seeds (simplified Chinese: 莲子; traditional Chinese: 蓮子; pinyin: liánzǐ; Cantonese Yale: lìhnjí) are nutritious but also vulnerable to microbial contamination, especially fungal infections. Therefore, mostly dry lotus seed-based products are found on the market. Traditional sun baking combined with charcoal processing dries the seeds but results in a loss of nutrients. Freeze-dried lotus seeds have a longer shelf life and maintain original nutrients, while no differences in flavour are found after rehydration compared to fresh lotus seeds.[52][53]
Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and mold infestation; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such as radiation processing.[54]
Lotus seeds can be processed into moon cake, lotus seed noodles and food in the forms of paste, fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn (phool makhana), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds.[55][56] Lotus seed tea is consumed in Korea, and lotus embryo tea is consumed in China and Vietnam.[56]
Young lotus stems are used as a salad ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as keang som sai bua (Thai: แกงส้มสายบัว, lotus stem sour soup) and keang kati sai bua (แกงกะทิสายบัว, lotus stem in coconut milk curry).
Innorthern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower is used to prepare a soup, kamala gaṭṭē kī sabzī (Hindi: कमल गट्टे की सब्ज़ी) and an appetizer, kamala kakaṛī pakauṛē (Hindi: कमल ककड़ी पकौड़े). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In Kerala (Malayalam: താമര) and Tamil Nadu, this end product is called thamara vathal.
In the Philippines, an indigenous variety called tukal is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season.
In China and Korea, lotus leaf tea (Korean: 연잎차, romanized: yeon'ip-cha) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming rice and sticky rice and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as lo mai gai in Chinese cuisine or kao hor bai bua (Thai: ข้าวห่อใบบัว), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine.
Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, cốm, which is eaten in autumn. The leaves impart a unique scent to the soft, moist rice.
In Korea, lotus flower tea (Korean: 연꽃차, romanized: yeon'kkot-cha) is made from the dried petals of the white lotus.
The stamens can be dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea (Chinese: 蓮花茶; pinyin: liánhuā cha; Cantonese Yale: lìhnfāa chah), or used to impart a scent to tea leaves (particularly in Vietnam). This Vietnamese lotus tea is called trà sen, chè sen, or chè ướp sen.
The petals, leaves, and rhizome can also all be eaten raw, but there is a risk of parasite transmission (e.g., Fasciolopsis buski): it is therefore recommended that they be cooked before eating.
Nelumbo nucifera shows high potential for usage in wastewater treatment removing polluting compounds[57] and heavy metals.[58][59][60] It is able to grow in variable water conditions[61] and in low light intensity.[57] Various studies show the successful use of N. nucifera to counteract water eutrophication.[57][62] The leaves of the floating lotus reduce sunlight reaching the lower part of the water. This suppresses algae growth in N. nucifera aquatic systems and thus, the oxygen content is up to 20% higher than in other aquatic plant systems.[57] Due to intense agricultural practices, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution are major problems in aquatic systems. N. nucifera is able to assimilate a higher content of phosphorus than aquatic plants currently used for water remediation (such as water hyacinth). It also assimilates nitrogen ("denitrification") and creates a habitat for bacterial growth in the water body.[57] Through rhizofiltration, heavy metals – including arsenic, copper, and cadmium – can be removed efficiently from the water.[58][59] The results observed are impressive showing 96% of copper and 85% cadmium metals removed after a seven-day incubation period.[59] The accumulation of heavy metals doesn't show morphological symptoms of metal toxicity;[60] however, the rhizome quality for human consumption needs further study.
Currently, most rhizomes are consumed fresh, and it is not common to store them due to their poor shelf life performance.[63] This limits export possibilities for low-income production countries in Asia. Rhizomes quickly lose water, oxidation occurs and nutrient composition changes within a short time after harvest. Optimal storage temperatures range between 5 and 8 °C (41 and 46 °F).[63] There are three different approaches to storing rhizomes. By stacking the rhizomes, they are storable and remain fresh for about three weeks. Special stacking with silver sand[clarification needed] and soil results in five to six layers that prevent water loss, thus, the rhizome stays fresh for up to two months.[63] However, the method is not suitable for commercialization but rather for home use. Hydrogen sulfide fumigation reduces enzymatic browning and therefore ensures rhizome quality.[59] Dipping the rhizomes in a salt solution prevents oxidation and bacterial reproduction, which allows storage for up to five months and greater export ability. This treatment is related to the high cost and inefficient cleaning process before eating the rhizomes.[clarification needed][63]
Nelumbo nucifera contains some thermal-stable proteins that might be useful in protein bioengineering processes. The proteins are characterized by seed longevity used for cell protection and repair under stress.[64] There are also several indications that compounds of N. nucifera are used in drug fabrication in human health research for multiple purposes.[65] Lotus leaves possess hydrophobic characteristics, attributed to a waxy coat that prevents water from adhering to the surface. This attribute has influenced the conception of the "lotus effect" in biomimicry and engineering, guiding the design of materials that resist water and remain self-cleaning. Researchers at the National University of Singapore have utilized the water-repelling structure as inspiration for developing eAir, an aero-elastic sensor capable of detecting subtle pressure changes or other environmental stimuli.[66]
The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for dried flower arranging.
In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper for zongzi). Lotus leaves are also used to serve food in various cultures.[67]
A unique fabric called lotus silk, from the lotus plant fibers, is produced only at Inle Lake, Myanmar, and in Siem Reap, Cambodia. This thread is used for weaving special robes for Buddha images called kya thingan (lotus robe).
The flavonol miquelianin, as well as the alkaloids (+)-(1R)-coclaurine and (−)-(1S)-norcoclaurine, can be found in the leaves of N. nucifera.[68] The plant also contains nuciferine, neferine, and many other benzylisoquinoline alkaloids with medicinal properties.[69][70]
This section needs more reliable medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Nelumbo nucifera" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2017)
|
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 278 kJ (66 kcal) |
16.02 g | |
Sugars | 0.50 g |
Dietary fiber | 3.1 g |
0.07 g | |
1.58 g | |
Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
Thiamine (B1) | 11% 0.127 mg |
Riboflavin (B2) | 1% 0.01 mg |
Niacin (B3) | 2% 0.3 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 6% 0.302 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 13% 0.218 mg |
Folate (B9) | 2% 8 μg |
Choline | 5% 25.4 mg |
Vitamin C | 30% 27.4 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 2% 26 mg |
Iron | 5% 0.9 mg |
Magnesium | 5% 22 mg |
Manganese | 10% 0.22 mg |
Phosphorus | 6% 78 mg |
Potassium | 12% 363 mg |
Sodium | 2% 45 mg |
Zinc | 3% 0.33 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 81.42 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[71] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[72] |
All parts of Nelumbo nucifera are edible, with the rhizome and seeds being the main consumption parts. Traditionally rhizomes, leaves, and seeds have been used as folk medicines, Ayurveda, Chinese traditional medicine, and oriental medicine.[73][74] In Chinese medicine, seeds are still used as lian zi xin (蓮子心).[75]
Lotus rhizomes and seeds and their processing by-products are widely consumed in Asia, the Americas, and Oceania for high content of physiologically active substances.[76] Especially in China, lotus seeds are popular with a cultural history going back about 3000 years. As early as the Han Dynasty, lotus seeds were already recorded as sweet, astringent, nourishing the heart and kidney in "Shen Nong's Herbal Classic".[77] Nowadays there are 22 varieties for the four known Chinese lines, which are found particularly in Jianning (still called "the town of Jianlian lotus seeds in China") and Guangchang ("the town of white lotus seeds in China").[78]
These days the perennial aquatic herb is gaining popularity because of its nutraceutical and historical importance[76][56] It will be of economic value if the different parts of lotus can be developed as functional food.[74][56] Because of its special role in human health and richness in nutrients and bioactive substances, the Chinese Ministry of Health approved the use of N. nucifera as both "food and medicine."[79]
The rhizomes are 60–14 cm (23.6–5.5 in) long, 0.5–2.5 cm (0.20–0.98 in) in diameter, yellowish white to yellowish brown, smooth, and with nodes and internodes.[80]
Lotus root is a moderate-calorie root vegetable (100 g of root stem provides about 74 calories) and is composed of several vitamins, minerals, and nutrients: 83.80% water, 0.11% fat, 1.56% reducing sugar, 0.41% sucrose, 2.70% crude protein, 9.25% starch, 0.80% fiber, 0.10% ash and 0.06% calcium.[81] 100 g of root provides 44 mg of vitamin C or 73% of daily recommended values (RDA).
Lotus rhizome and its extracts have shown diuretic, psychopharmacological, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, hypoglycemic, antipyretic and antioxidant activities.[82][83][84][85][86][medical citation needed]
Lotus seeds are mostly oval or spherical, with sizes varying according to varieties. They are generally 1.2–1.8 cm long, with diameters ranging from 0.8 to 1.4 cm and a weight of 1.1–1.4 g. After lotus seeds have been decorticated and peeled, they are edible and rich in nutrients and can be dried for storage. Their nutritional values can differ due to culture environments and varieties.[87]
Not only do these seeds contain proteins of high quality and are rich in a variety of essential amino acids including high contents of albumin (42%) and globulin (27%), they also contain unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, calcium, iron, zinc, phosphorus and other trace elements.[88][89] They also provide water-soluble polysaccharides, alkaloids, flavonoids, superoxide dismutase, and other bioactive components.[90]
Lotus seeds also contain particularly large amounts of vitamins, including VB1, VB2, VB6 and Vitamin E.[91][92]
The functional components (polyphenols, protein, polysaccharides) in N. nucifera seeds can help combat high blood pressure, diabetes, and gallstones.[citation needed]
After lotus seed germination, crude protein and fat levels in the endosperm significantly increase. It is therefore an important method to enhance its nutritional quality.[93][56]
Nelumbo nucifera is a lotus species with historical cultural and spiritual significance. It is a sacred flower in both Hinduism and Buddhism,[94] representing the path to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. In Christianity, the lotus flower is often associated with the apostle Thomas and his coming to India.[95] The lotus flower is also mentioned in the bible.[96]
In Asian art, a lotus throne is a stylized lotus flower used as the seat or base for a figure. It is the normal pedestal for divine figures in Buddhist art and Hindu art and is often seen in Jain art. Originating in Indian art, it followed Indian religionstoEast Asia in particular. Lotus flowers are also often held by figures.[97][98][99][100][101]
The Nelumbo nucifera, which is also called (Nilufar Abi in Persian), can be seen in many reliefs of the Achaemenid period (552 BC) such as the statue of Anahita in the Persepolis. The lotus flower was included in Kaveh the blacksmith's Derafsh and later as the flag of the Sasanian Empire Derafsh Kaviani. Today, it is the symbol of Iranians Solar Hijri calendar.
The lotus flower also holds cultural and religious significance in Ismaili Muslim and related South Asian traditions. For example, in South Asian Ismaili literature, the lotus is compared to the pure soul. A poem describes the lotus' beauty, describing how its delicate white petals remain pure and beautiful, despite its murky environment. Similarly, a pure soul is part of this world, yet is not of this world, much like the circumstances of the lotus. The poem further emphasizes the importance of true knowledge or gnosis, which is likened to the pure rainwater that allows the lotus to flourish. Ismaili belief holds that the true guide provides this true knowledge, without which the pure soul cannot survive. Just as the lotus flower would rather die than drink from a reeking swamp, the pure soul also seeks nourishment solely through true knowledge.[102]
Sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) has been cultivated as a crop in Asia for thousands of years. A ≈1300-year-old lotus fruit, recovered from an originally cultivated but now dry lakebed in northeastern China, is the oldest germinated and directly 14C-dated fruit known. In 1996, we traveled to the dry lake at Xipaozi Village, China, the source of the old viable fruits.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
| ||
---|---|---|
Constitutional |
|
|
Flora and fauna |
| |
Days |
| |
Others |
|
| |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Main topics |
| ||||||
Rituals |
| ||||||
|
| ||||||
Mantras |
| ||||||
Objects |
| ||||||
Materials |
| ||||||
Instruments |
| ||||||
Iconography |
| ||||||
Places |
| ||||||
Roles |
| ||||||
Sacred animals |
| ||||||
Sacred plants |
| ||||||
See also |
|
Nelumbo nucifera |
|
---|
Authority control databases: National |
|
---|