Names of China
![]() | This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
|
Part of a series on |
Names of China |
---|
|
Sinitic names[edit]
Zhongguo[edit]
Pre-Qing[edit]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/He_Zun_transcription.jpg/400px-He_Zun_transcription.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/%22Five_stars_rising_in_the_East%22_armband.jpg/170px-%22Five_stars_rising_in_the_East%22_armband.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Nestorian-Stele-Budge-plate-X.jpg/170px-Nestorian-Stele-Budge-plate-X.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hunminjeongum.jpg/170px-Hunminjeongum.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png/220px-Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png)
Qing[edit]
Zhongguo appeared in a formal international legal document for the first time during the Qing dynasty in the Treaty of Nerchinsk, 1689. The term was then used in communications with other states and in treaties. The Manchu rulers incorporated Inner Asian polities into their empire, and Wei Yuan, a statecraft scholar, distinguished the new territories from Zhongguo, which he defined as the 17 provinces of "China proper" plus the Manchu homelands in the Northeast. By the late 19th century the term had emerged as a common name for the whole country. The empire was sometimes referred to as Great Qing but increasingly as Zhongguo (see the discussion below).[23] Dulimbai Gurun is the Manchu name for China, with "Dulimbai" meaning "central" or "middle" and "Gurun" meaning "nation" or "state."[24][25][26] The historian Zhao Gang writes that﹃not long after the collapse of the Ming, China became the equivalent of Great Qing (Da Qing)—another official title of the Qing state,﹄and "Qing and China became interchangeable official titles, and the latter often appeared as a substitute for the former in official documents."[27] The Qing dynasty referred to their realm as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing realm (including present-day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet, and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas; both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China.". Officials used "China" (though not exclusively) in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人; Zhōngguórén; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.[28] Ming loyalist Han literati held to defining the old Ming borders as China and using "foreigner" to describe minorities under Qing rule such as the Mongols and Tibetans, as part of their anti-Qing ideology.[29]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png/500px-%E6%BB%BF%E8%92%99%E6%BC%A2%E5%90%88%E7%92%A7%E6%95%99%E7%A7%91%E6%9B%B8_%28%E7%AF%80%E9%8C%84%29.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg/220px-Big_Dragon_stamps.jpg)
Middle Kingdom[edit]
The English translation of Zhongyuan as the "Middle Kingdom" entered European languages through the Portuguese in the 16th century and became popular in the mid-19th century. By the mid-20th century, the term was thoroughly entrenched in the English language, reflecting the Western view of China as the inward-looking Middle Kingdom, or more accurately, the Central KingdomorCentral State. Endymion Wilkinson points out that the Chinese were not unique in thinking of their country as central, although China was the only culture to use the concept for its name.[59] However, the term Zhongguo was not initially used as a name for China. It did not have the same meaning throughout the course of history (see above).[60] During the 19th century, China was alternatively (although less commonly) referred to in the west as the "Middle Flowery Kingdom",[61] "Central Flowery Kingdom",[62] or "Central Flowery State",[63] translated from Zhōnghuáguó (中華國; 中华国),[64] or simply the "Flowery Kingdom",[65] translated from Huáguó (華國; 华国).[66][67] However, some have since argued that such a translation (fairly commonly seen at that time) was perhaps caused by misunderstanding the Huá (華; 华) that means "China" (or "magnificent, splendid") for the Huā (花) that means "flower".[68][69]Huaxia[edit]
The name Huáxià (华夏; 華夏) is generally used as a sobriquet in Chinese text. Under traditional interpretations, it is the combination of two words which originally referred to the elegance of traditional Han attire and the Confucian concept of rites.
- Hua, which means "flowery beauty" (i.e., having beauty of dress and personal adornment 有服章之美,謂之華).
- Xia, which means greatness or grandeur (i.e., having greatness in social customs, courtesy, polite manners and rites/ceremony 有禮儀之大,故稱夏).[70]
In the original sense, Huaxia refers to a confederation of tribes—living along the Yellow River—who were the ancestors of what later became the Han ethnic group in China.[citation needed] During the Warring States (475–221 BCE), the self-awareness of the Huaxia identity developed and took hold in ancient China.
Zhonghua minzu[edit]
Zhonghua minzu is a term meaning "Chinese nation" in the sense of a multi-ethnic national identity. Though originally rejected by the PRC, it has been used officially since the 1980s for nationalist politics.
Tianchao and Tianxia[edit]
Tianchao (天朝; pinyin: Tiāncháo), translated as 'heavenly dynasty' or 'Celestial Empire',[71] and Tianxia (天下; pinyin: Tiānxià) translated as 'All under heaven', have both been used to refer to China. These terms were usually used in the context of civil wars or periods of division, with the term Tianchao evoking the idea that the realm's ruling dynasty was appointed by heaven,[71] or that whoever ends up reunifying China is said to have ruled Tianxia, or everything under heaven. This fits with the traditional Chinese theory of rulership, in which the emperor was nominally the political leader of the entire world and not merely the leader of a nation-state within the world. Historically, the term was connected to the later Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE), especially the Spring and Autumn period (eighth to fourth century BCE) and the Warring States period (from there to 221 BCE, when China was reunified by Qin). The phrase Tianchao continues to see use on Chinese internet discussion boards, in reference to China.[71]
The phrase Tianchao was first translated into English and French in the early 19th century, appearing in foreign publications and diplomatic correspondences,[72] with the translated phrase "Celestial Empire" occasionally used to refer to China. During this period, the term celestial was used by some to refer to the subjects of the Qing in a non-prejudicial manner,[72] derived from the term "Celestial Empire". However, the term celestial was also used in a pejorative manner during the 19th century, in reference to Chinese immigrants in Australasia and North America.[72] The translated phrase has largely fallen into disuse in the 20th century.
Jiangshan and Shanhe[edit]
The two names Jiāngshān (江山) and Shānhé (山河), both literally 'rivers and mountains', quite similar in usage to Tianxia, simply referring to the entire world, the most prominent features of which being rivers and mountains. The use of this term is also common as part of the idiom Jiāngshān shèjì (江山社稷; 'rivers and mountains', 'soil and grain'), in a suggestion of the need to implement good governance.
Jiuzhou[edit]
The name jiǔ zhōu (九州) means 'nine provinces'. Widely used in pre-modern Chinese text, the word originated during the middle of the Warring States period. During that time, the Yellow River region was divided into nine geographical regions; thus this name was coined. Some people also attribute this word to the mythical hero and king Yu the Great, who, in the legend, divided China into nine provinces during his reign.
Han[edit]
Han | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 漢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 汉 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanyu Pinyin | Hàn | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese alphabet | Hán | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chữ Hán | 漢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hangul | 한 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanja | 漢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kanji | 漢 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kana | かん | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
The name Han (汉; 漢; Hàn) derives from the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220), which presided over China's first "golden age.". The Han dynasty collapsed in 220 and was followed by a long period of disorder, including Three Kingdoms, Sixteen Kingdoms, and Southern and Northern dynasties periods. During these periods, various non-Han ethnic groups established various dynasties in northern China. It was during this period that people began to use the term "Han" to refer to the natives of North China, who (unlike the minorities) were the descendants of the subjects of the Han dynasty.
During the Yuan dynasty, subjects of the empire were divided into four classes: Mongols, Semu, Han, and "Southerns". Northern Chinese were called Han, which was considered to be the highest class of Chinese. This class, "Han," includes all ethnic groups in northern China, including Khitan and Jurchen who have, for the most part, sinicized during the last two hundreds years. The name "Han" became popularly accepted.
During the Qing, the Manchu rulers also used the name Han to distinguish the natives of the Central Plains from the Manchus. After the fall of the Qing government, the Han became the name of a nationality within China. Today, the term "Han persons", often rendered in English as "Han Chinese", is used by the People's Republic of China to refer to the most populous of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China.
Tang[edit]
Tang | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese | 唐 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanyu Pinyin | Táng | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese alphabet | Đường | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chữ Hán | 唐 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hangul | 당 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanja | 唐 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kanji | 唐 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kana | とう (On), から (Kun) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
The name Tang (唐; Táng) comes from the Tang dynasty (618–907) that presided over China's second golden age. It was during the Tang dynasty that South China was finally and fully sinicized; Tang would become synonymous with China in Southern China, and it is usually Southern Chinese who refer to themselves as "People of Tang" (唐人, pinyin: Tángrén).[73] For example, the sinicization and rapid development of Guangdong during the Tang period would lead the Cantonese to refer to themselves as Tong-yan (唐人) in Cantonese, while China is called Tong-saan (唐山; pinyin: Tángshān; lit. 'Tang Mountain').[74] Chinatowns worldwide, often dominated by Southern Chinese, also became referred to as Tang People's Street (唐人街, Cantonese: Tong-yan-gaai; pinyin: Tángrénjiē). The Cantonese term Tongsan (Tang mountain) is recorded in Old Malay as one of the local terms for China, along with the Sanskrit-derived Cina. It is still used in Malaysia today, usually in a derogatory sense.
Among Taiwanese, Tang mountain (Min-Nan: Tng-soa) has been used, for example, in the saying, "has Tangshan father, no Tangshan mother" (有唐山公,無唐山媽; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Ū Tn̂g-soaⁿ kong, bô Tn̂g-soaⁿ má).[75][76] This refers to how the Han people crossing the Taiwan Strait in the 17th and 18th centuries were mostly men, and that many of their offspring would be through intermarriage with Taiwanese aborigine women.
In Ryukyuan, karate was originally called tii (手, hand) or karatii (唐手, Tang hand) because 唐ぬ國 too-nu-kuku or kara-nu-kuku (唐ぬ國) was a common Ryukyuan name for China; it was changed to karate (空手, open hand) to appeal to Japanese people after the First Sino-Japanese War.
Zhu Yu, who wrote during the Northern Song dynasty, noted that the name "Han" was first used by the northwestern 'barbarians' to refer to China, while the name "Tang" was first used by the southeastern 'barbarians' to refer to China, and these terms subsequently influenced the local Chinese terminology.[77] During the Mongol invasions of Japan, the Japanese distinguished between the "Han" of northern China, who, like the Mongols and Koreans, were not to be taken prisoner, and the Newly Submitted Army of southern China, whom they called "Tang", who would be enslaved instead.[78]
Dalu and Neidi[edit]
Dàlù (大陸/大陆; pinyin: dàlù), literally "big continent" or "mainland" in this context, is used as a short form of Zhōnggúo Dàlù (中國大陸/中国大陆, mainland China), excluding (depending on the context) Hong Kong, Macau, or Taiwan. This term is used in official contexts on both the mainland and Taiwan when referring to the mainland as opposed to Taiwan. In certain contexts, it is equivalent to the term Neidi (内地; pinyin: nèidì, literally "the inner land"). While Neidi generally refers to the interior as opposed to a particular coastal or border location, or the coastal or border regions generally, it is used in Hong Kong specifically to mean mainland China, excluding Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Increasingly, it is also being used in an official context within mainland China[citation needed], for example, in reference to the separate judicial and customs jurisdictions of mainland China on the one hand and Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan on the other.
The term Neidi is also often used in Xinjiang and Tibet to distinguish the eastern provinces of China from the minority-populated, autonomous regions of the west.
Official names[edit]
People's Republic of China[edit]
People's Republic of China | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() "People's Republic of China" in simplified (top) and traditional (bottom) Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中华人民共和国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 中華人民共和國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanyu Pinyin | Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tibetan name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tibetan | ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese alphabet | Cộng hoà Nhân dân Trung Hoa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chữ Hán | 共和人民中華 / 中華人民共和国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thai name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Thai | สาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีน | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zhuang name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zhuang | Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hangul | 중화 인민 공화국 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanja | 中華人民共和国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mongolian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mongolian Cyrillic | Бүгд Найрамдах Дундад Ард Улс | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mongolian script | ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kanji | 中華人民共和国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Uyghur name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Uyghur | جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىتى | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Manchu name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Manchu script | ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Romanization | Dulimbai niyalmairgen gunghe' gurun |
The name New China has been frequently applied to China by the Chinese Communist Party as a positive political and social term contrasting pre-1949 China (the establishment of the PRC) and the new name of the socialist state, Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó (in the older postal romanization, Chunghwa Jenmin Konghokuo), or the "People's Republic of China" in English, which was adapted from the CCP's short-lived Chinese Soviet Republic in 1931. This term is also sometimes used by writers outside of mainland China. The PRC was known to many in the West during the Cold War as "Communist China" or "Red China" to distinguish it from the Republic of China which is commonly called "Taiwan," "Nationalist China," or "Free China". In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade, and sports, "China" is often used to refer to mainland China to the exclusion of Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan.
Republic of China[edit]
Republic of China | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() "Republic of China" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 中華民國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中华民国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Postal | Chunghwa Minkuo | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Central State People's Country | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese Taipei | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 中華臺北 or 中華台北 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中华台北 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 臺澎金馬 個別關稅領域 or 台澎金馬 個別關稅領域 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 台澎金马 个别关税领域 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Taiwan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 臺灣 or 台灣 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 台湾 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Postal | Taiwan | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | Terraced Bay | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Portuguese: (Ilha) Formosa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 福爾摩沙 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 福尔摩沙 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | beautiful island | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Republic of Taiwan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 臺灣民國 or 台灣民國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 台湾民国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Postal | Taiwan Minkuo | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tibetan name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Tibetan | ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་དམངས་གཙོའི། ་རྒྱལ་ཁབ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vietnamese alphabet | Trung Hoa Dân Quốc | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chữ Hán | 中華民國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zhuang name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Zhuang | Cunghvaz Minzgoz | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hangul | 중화민국 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hanja | 中華民國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mongolian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mongolian Cyrillic | Дундад Иргэн Улс | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Mongolian script | ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kanji | 中華民国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Kana | ちゅうかみんこく | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Uyghur name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Uyghur | جۇڭخۇا مىنگو | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Manchu name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Manchu script | ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Romanization | Dulimbai irgen' Gurun |
In 1912, China adopted its official name, Chunghwa Minkuo (rendered in pinyin Zhōnghuá Mínguó) or in English as the "Republic of China", which has also sometimes been referred to as "Republican China" or the "Republican Era" (民國時代), in contrast to the Qing dynasty it replaced, or as "Nationalist China", after the ruling Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang). 中華 (Chunghwa) is a term that pertains to "China," while 民國 (Minkuo), literally "People's State" or "Peopledom," stands for "republic.".[79][80] The name stems from the party manifesto of Tongmenghui in 1905, which says the four goals of the Chinese revolution were "to expel the Manchu rulers, to revive Chunghwa, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people. The convener of Tongmenghui and Chinese revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen proposed the name Chunghwa Minkuo as the assumed name of the new country when the revolution succeeded.
Since the separation from mainland China in 1949 as a result of the Chinese Civil War, the territory of the Republic of China has largely been confined to the island of Taiwan and some other small islands. Thus, the country is often simply referred to as simply "Taiwan", although this may not be perceived as politically neutral. Amid the hostile rhetoric of the Cold War, the government and its supporters sometimes referred to themselves as "Free China" or "Liberal China," in contrast to the People's Republic of China, which was historically called the "Bandit-occupied Area" (匪區) by the ROC. In addition, the ROC, due to pressure from the PRC, was forced to use the name "Chinese Taipei" (中華台北) whenever it participates in international forums or most sporting events such as the Olympic Games.
Taiwanese politician Mei Feng had criticised the official English name of the state, "Republic of China," for failing to translate the Chinese character "Min" (Chinese: 民; English: people) according to Sun Yat-sen's original interpretations, while the name should instead be translated as "the People's Republic of China," which confuses with the current official name of China under communist control.[81] To avoid confusion, the Chen Shui-ban led DPP administration began to add "Taiwan" next to the nation's official name since 2005.[82]
Names in non-Chinese records[edit]
Names used in the parts of Asia, especially East and Southeast Asia, are usually derived directly from words in one of the languages of China. Those languages belonging to a former dependency (tributary) or Chinese-influenced country have an especially similar pronunciation to that of Chinese. Those used in Indo-European languages, however, have indirect names that came via other routes and may bear little resemblance to what is used in China.
Chin[edit]
English, most Indo-European languages, and many others use various forms of the name China and the prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-" from the Latin Sina.[83][84] Europeans had knowledge of a country known in Greek as Thina or Sina from the early period;[85] the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea from perhaps the first century AD recorded a country known as Thin (θίν).[86] The English name for "China" itself is derived from Middle Persian (Chīnī چین). This modern word "China" was first used by Europeans starting with Portuguese explorers of the 16th century – it was first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[87][88] The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.[89]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CEM-09-Asiae-Nova-Descriptio-China-2510.jpg/220px-CEM-09-Asiae-Nova-Descriptio-China-2510.jpg)
The traditional etymology, proposed in the 17th century by Martin Martini and supported by later scholars such as Paul Pelliot and Berthold Laufer, is that the word "China" and its related terms are ultimately derived from the polity known as Qin that unified China to form the Qin dynasty (Old Chinese: *dzin) in the 3rd century BC, but existed as a state on the furthest west of China since the 9th century BC.[85][90][91] This is still the most commonly held theory, although the etymology is still a matter of debate according to the Oxford English Dictionary,[92] and many other suggestions have been mooted.[93][94]
The existence of the word Cīna in ancient Indian texts was noted by the Sanskrit scholar Hermann Jacobi who pointed out its use in the Book 2 of Arthashastra with reference to silk and woven cloth produced by the country of Cīna, although textual analysis suggests that Book 2 may not have been written long before 150 AD.[95] The word is also found in other Sanskrit texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Laws of Manu.[96] The Indologist Patrick Olivelle argued that the word Cīnā may not have been known in India before the first century BC, nevertheless he agreed that it probably referred to Qin but thought that the word itself was derived from a Central Asian language.[97] Some Chinese and Indian scholars argued for the state of Jing (荆, another name for Chu) as the likely origin of the name.[94] Another suggestion, made by Geoff Wade, is that the Cīnāh in Sanskrit texts refers to an ancient kingdom centered in present-day Guizhou, called Yelang, in the south Tibeto-Burman highlands.[96] The inhabitants referred to themselves as Zina according to Wade.[98]
The term China can also be used to refer to:
- a modern state, indicating the PRC or ROC;
- "Mainland China" (中国大陆; 中國大陸; Zhōngguó Dàlù, which is the territory of the PRC minus the two regions of Hong Kong and Macau;
- "China proper", a term used to refer to the historical heartlands of China without peripheral areas like Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang
In economic contexts, "Greater China" (大中华地区; 大中華地區; Dà Zhōnghuá dìqū) is intended to be a neutral and non-political way to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan.
Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, akin to the classical usage of Zhongguo, to the Han ethnic group, which makes up the bulk of the population in China and of the overseas Chinese.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/CEM-11-Chinae-nova-descriptio-2521.jpg/220px-CEM-11-Chinae-nova-descriptio-2521.jpg)
Seres, Ser, Serica[edit]
Sēres (Σῆρες) was the Ancient Greek and Roman name for the northwestern part of China and its inhabitants. It meant 'of silk', or 'land where silk comes from'. The name is thought to derive from the Chinese word for silk, 丝; 絲; sī; Middle Chinese sɨ, Old Chinese *slɯ, per Zhengzhang). It is itself at the origin of the Latin for 'silk', sērica.
This may be a back formation from sērikos (σηρικός), 'made of silk', from sēr (σήρ), 'silkworm', in which case Sēres is 'the land where silk comes from'.
Sinae, Sin [edit]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/PtolemyWorldMap.jpg/250px-PtolemyWorldMap.jpg)
Sīnae was an ancient Greek and Roman name for some people who dwelt south of Serica in the eastern extremity of the habitable world. References to the Sinae include mention of a city that the Romans called Sēra Mētropolis, which may be modern Chang'an. The Latin prefix Sino- as well as words such as Sinica, which are traditionally used to refer to China, came from Sīnae.[99] It is generally thought that Chīna, Sīna and Thīna are variants that ultimately derived from "Qin", the western Zhou-era state that eventually founded the Qin dynasty.[86] There are other opinions on its etymology: Henry Yule thought that this term may have come to Europe through the Arabs, who made the China of the farther east into Sin, and perhaps sometimes into Thin.[100] Hence the Thin of the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name in this form; hence also the Sinae and Thinae of Ptolemy.[85][86]
Some denied that Ptolemy's Sinae really represented the Chinese as Ptolemy called the country Sērice and the capital Sēra, but regarded them as distinct from Sīnae.[86][101] Marcian of Heraclea, a condenser of Ptolemy, tells us that the "nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable world, and adjoin the eastern Terra incognita". The 6th century Cosmas Indicopleustes refers to a "country of silk" called Tzinista, which is understood as referring to China, beyond which "there is neither navigation nor any land to inhabit".[102] It seems probable that the same region is meant by both. According to Henry Yule, Ptolemy's misrendering of the Indian Sea as a closed basin meant that Ptolemy must also have misplaced the Chinese coast, leading to the misconception of Serica and Sina as separate countries.[100]
In the Hebrew Bible, there is a mention of the faraway country "Sinim" in the Book of Isaiah 49:12 which some had assumed to be a reference to China.[86][103] In Genesis 10:17, a tribes called the "Sinites" were said to be the descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham, but they are usually considered to be a different people, probably from the northern part of Lebanon.[104][105]
Cathay or Kitay[edit]
These names derive from the Khitan people that originated in Manchuria and conquered parts of northern China during the early 10th century to form the Liao dynasty, and dominated Central Asia during the 12th century as the Kara Khitan Khanate. Due to the long period of political relevance, the name "Khitan" become associated with China. Muslim historians referred to the Kara Khitan state as "Khitay" or "Khitai"; they may have adopted this form of "Khitan" via the Uyghurs of Qocho, in whose language the final -n or -ń became -y.[106] The name was then introduced to medieval and early modern Europe through Islamic and Russian sources.[107] In English and in several other European languages, the name "Cathay" was used in the translations of the adventures of Marco Polo, which used this word for northern China. Words related to Khitay are still used in many Turkic and Slavic languages to refer to China. However, its use by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authority who tried to ban it.[107]
There is no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century, Cathayans, i.e. Chinese, travelled officially to Europe, but it is possible that some did, in unofficial capacities, at least in the 13th century. During the campaigns of Hulagu (the grandson of Genghis Khan) in Persia (1256–65), and the reigns of his successors, Chinese engineers were employed on the banks of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be consulted. Many diplomatic communications passed between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and Christian princes. The former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from him their seals of state; and two of their letters which survive in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of those seals in Chinese characters—perhaps affording the earliest specimen of those characters to reach western Europe.
Tabgach[edit]
The word Tabgach came from the metatheses of Tuoba (*t'akbat), a dominant tribe of the Xianbei and the surname of the Northern Wei emperors in the 5th century before sinicisation. It referred to Northern China, which was dominated by part-Xianbei, part-Han people.
This name is re-translated back into Chinese as Taohuashi (Chinese: 桃花石; pinyin: táohuā shí).[108] This name has been used in China in recent years to promote ethnic unity.[109][110]
Nikan[edit]
Nikan (Manchu: ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ) was a Manchu ethnonym of unknown origin that referred specifically to the Han Chinese; the stem of this word was also conjugated as a verb, nikara(-mbi), which meant 'to speak the Chinese language'. Since Nikan was essentially an ethnonym and referred to a group of people rather than to a political body, the correct translation of "China" into Manchu is Nikan gurun, 'country of the Han'.[citation needed]
This exonym for the Han Chinese is also used in the Daur language, in which it appears as Niaken ([njakən] or [ɲakən]).[111] As in the case of the Manchu language, the Daur word Niaken is essentially an ethnonym, and the proper way to refer to the country of the Han Chinese (i.e., "China" in a cultural sense) is Niaken gurun, while niakendaaci- is a verb meaning "to talk in Chinese."
Kara[edit]
Japanese: Kara (から; variously written as 唐 or 漢). An identical name was used by the ancient and medieval Japanese to refer to the country that is now known as Korea, and many Japanese historians and linguists believe that the word "Kara" referring to China and/or Korea may have derived from a metonymic extension of the appellation of the ancient city-states of Gaya.
The Japanese word karate (空手, lit. "empty hand") is derived from the Okinawan word karatii (唐手, lit. "Chinese/Asian/foreign hand/trick/means/method/style") and refers to Okinawan martial arts; the character for kara was changed to remove the connotation of the style originating in China.[112]
Morokoshi[edit]
Japanese: Morokoshi (もろこし; variously written as 唐 or 唐土). This obsolete Japanese name for China is believed to have derived from a kun'yomi reading of the Chinese compound 諸越 Zhūyuè or 百越 Baiyue as "all the Yue" or "the hundred (i.e., myriad, various, or numerous) Yue," which was an ancient Chinese name for the societies of the regions that are now southern China.
The Japanese common noun tōmorokoshi (トウモロコシ, 玉蜀黍), which refers to maize, appears to contain an element cognate with the proper noun formerly used in reference to China. Although tōmorokoshi is traditionally written with Chinese characters that literally mean "jade Shu millet," the etymology of the Japanese word appears to go back to "Tang morokoshi," in which "morokoshi" was the obsolete Japanese name for China as well as the Japanese word for sorghum, which seems to have been introduced into Japan from China.
Mangi[edit]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/1837_Malte-Brun_Map_of_the_Mongol_Empire_in_Asia_and_Europe_-_Geographicus_-_AsiaMongol-mb-1837.jpg/220px-1837_Malte-Brun_Map_of_the_Mongol_Empire_in_Asia_and_Europe_-_Geographicus_-_AsiaMongol-mb-1837.jpg)
From Chinese Manzi (southern barbarians). The division of north and south China under the Jin dynasty and Song dynasty weakened the idea of a unified China, and it was common for non-Han peoples to refer to the politically disparate North and South by different names for some time. While Northern China was called Cathay, Southern China was referred to as Mangi. Manzi often appears in documents of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty as a disparaging term for Southern China. The Mongols also called Southern Chinese Nangkiyas or Nangkiyad, and considered them ethnically distinct from North Chinese. The word Manzi reached the Western world as Mangi (as used by Marco Polo), which is a name commonly found on medieval maps. Note however that the Chinese themselves considered Manzi to be derogatory and never used it as a self-appellation.[113][114] Some early scholars believed Mangi to be a corruption of the Persian Machin (ماچين) and Arabic Māṣīn (ماصين), which may be a mistake as these two forms are derived from the Sanskrit Maha Chin meaning Great China.[115]
Sign names[edit]
The name for China in Chinese Sign Language is performed by trailing the tip of one's fingertip horizontally across the upper end of the chest, from the non-dominant side to the dominant one, and then vertically downwards.[116] Many sign languages have adopted the Chinese sign as a loanword; this includes American Sign Language,[117] in which this has happened across dialects, from Canada[118] to California,[119] replacing previous signs indicating East Asian people's typical epicanthic fold, now considered offensive.[120]
Multiple other languages have borrowed the sign as well, with some modifications. In Estonian Sign Language, the index finger moves diagonally to the non-dominant side instead of vertically downwards,[121] and in French[122] and Israeli Sign Language,[123] the thumb is used instead. Some other languages use unrelated signs.[124] For example, in Hong Kong Sign Language, the extended dominant index and middle fingers, held together, tap twice the non-dominant ones in the same handshape, palm downwards, in front of the signer's chest;[125] in Taiwanese Sign Language, both hands are flat, with extended thumbs and other fingers held together and pointing sideways, palms towards the signer, move up and down together repeatedly in front of the signer's chest.[126]
See also[edit]
- Little China (ideology)
- Chinese romanization
- List of country name etymologies
- Names of the Qing dynasty
- Names of India
- Names of Japan
- Names of Korea
- Names of Vietnam
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
(68)^ Patricia Bjaaland Welch (2013). Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery. Tuttle Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 9781462906895.
(69)^ Pialat, François (2011). 29 Chinese Mysteries. AuthorHouse UK. p. 69. ISBN 9781456789237.
(70)^ 孔穎達︽春秋左傳正義︾‥﹁中國有禮儀之大,故稱夏‥有服章之美,謂之華。﹂
(71)^ abcWang, Zhang (2014). Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14891-7.
(72)^ abc"'Celestial' origins come from long ago in Chinese history". Mail Tribune. Rosebud Media LLC. 20 January 2011. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
(73)^ Dillon, Michael (13 September 2013). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary. Routledge. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-136-79141-3.
(74)^ H. Mark Lai (4 May 2004). Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions. AltaMira Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-7591-0458-7.
(75)^ Tai, Pao-tsun (2007). The Concise History of Taiwan (Chinese-English bilingual ed.). Nantou City: Taiwan Historica. p. 52. ISBN 9789860109504.
(76)^ "Entry #60161 (有唐山公,無唐山媽。)". 臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 [Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan]. (in Chinese and Hokkien). Ministry of Education, R.O.C. 2011.
(77)^ Tackett, Nicolas (2017). Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-107-19677-3.
(78)^ Zuikei Shuho and Charlotte von Verschuer (2002). "Japan's Foreign Relations from 1200 to 1392 A.D.: A Translation from "Zenrin Kokuhōki"". Monumenta Nipponica. 57(4): 432.
(79)^ ︽中華民國教育部重編國語辭典修訂本︾:﹁以其位居四方之中,文化美盛,故稱其地為﹃中華﹄。﹂
(80)^ Wilkinson. Chinese History: A Manual. p. 32.
(81)^ Mei Feng. "中華民國應譯為﹁PRC﹂". 开放网. Archived from the original on 2015-11-17. Retrieved 2022-05-25.2014-07-12
(82)^ BBC 中文網 (2005-08-29). 論壇‥台總統府網頁加注“台灣” [Forum: Adding "Taiwan" to the website of Taiwan's Presidential Office] (in Traditional Chinese). BBC 中文網. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2007-03-12. 台總統府公共
事務室陳文宗上周六︵7月30日︶表示,外界人士易把中華民國︵Re
public of China︶,誤認為對岸的中國,造成困擾和
不便。公共事務室指出,為了明確區別,決定自周六起於中文繁體、簡
體的總統府網站中,在﹁中華民國﹂之後,以括弧加注﹁臺灣﹂。[C
hen Wen-tsong, Public Affairs O
ffice of Taiwan's Presidential
Office, stated last Saturday (3
0 July) that outsiders tend to
mistake the Chung-hua Min-kuo (
Republic of China) for China on
the other side, causing troubl
e and inconvenience. The Public
Affairs Office pointed out tha
t in order to clarify the disti
nction, it was decided to add "
Taiwan" in brackets after "Repu
blic of China" on the website o
f the Presidential Palace in tr
aditional and simplified Chines
e starting from Saturday.](83)^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed (AHD4). Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, entries china, Qin, Sino-. (84)^ Axel Schuessler (2006). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. University of Hawai'i Press. p. 429. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. (85)^ abcYule (2005), p. 2–3 "There are reasons however for believing the word China was bestowed at a much earlier date, for it occurs in the Laws of Manu, which assert the Chinas to be degenerate Kshatriyas, and the Mahabharat, compositions many centuries older that imperial dynasty of Ts'in ... And this name may have yet possibly been connected with the Ts'in, or some monarchy of the like title; for that Dynasty had reigned locally in Shen si from the ninth century before our era..." (86)^ abcdeSamuel Wells Williams (2006). The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants. Routledge. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-7103-1167-2. (87)^ "China". Oxford English Dictionary (1989). ISBN 0-19-957315-8. (88)^ Barbosa, Duarte; Dames, Mansel Longworth (1989). ""The Very Great Kingdom of China"". The Book of Duarte Barbosa. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0451-2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2020-11-18. In the Portuguese original Archived 2013-05-08 at the Wayback Machine, the chapter is titled "O Grande Reino da China". (89)^ Eden, Richard (1555). Decades of the New World: "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world." Myers, Henry Allen (1984). Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1. Asian Research Service. p. 34. (90)^ Wade (2009), pp. 8–11 (91)^ Berthold Laufer (1912). "The Name China". T'oung Pao. 13(1): 719–726. doi:10.1163/156853212X00377. (92)^ "China". Oxford English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2020-03-14. Retrieved 2020-01-21.ISBN 0-19-957315-8 (93)^ Yule (2005), p. 3–7 (94)^ abWade (2009), pp. 12–13 (95)^ Bodde, Derk (26 December 1986). Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2017. (96)^ abWade (2009), p. 20 (97)^ Liu, Lydia He, The clash of empires, p. 77. ISBN 9780674019959. "Scholars have dated the earliest mentions of Cīna to the Rāmāyana and the Mahābhārata and to other Sanskrit sources such as the Hindu Laws of Manu." (98)^ Wade (2009) "This thesis also helps explain the existence of Cīna in the Indic Laws of Manu and the Mahabharata, likely dating well before Qin Shihuangdi." (99)^ "Sino-". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2015-07-14. (100)^ abYule (2005), p. xxxvii (101)^ Yule (2005), p. xl (102)^ Stefan Faller (2011). "The World According to Cosmas Indicopleustes – Concepts and Illustrations of an Alexandrian Merchant and Monk". Transcultural Studies. 1(2011): 193–232. doi:10.11588/ts.2011.1.6127. Archived from the original on 2015-07-14. Retrieved 2015-07-14. (103)^ William Smith; John Mee Fuller, eds. (1893). Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible. p. 1328. (104)^ John Kitto, ed. (1845). A cyclopædia of biblical literature. p. 773. (105)^ William Smith; John Mee Fuller, eds. (1893). Encyclopaedic dictionary of the Bible. p. 1323. (106)^ Sinor, D. (1998), "Chapter 11 – The Kitan and the Kara Kitay", in Asimov, M.S.; Bosworth, C. E. (eds.), History of Civilisations of Central Asia, vol. 4 part I, UNESCO Publishing, ISBN 92-3-103467-7 (107)^ abJames A. Millward; Peter C. Perdue (2004). S.F.Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-317-45137-2. (108)^ Rui, Chuanming (2021). On the Ancient History of the Silk Road. World Scientific. doi:10.1142/9789811232978_0005. ISBN 978-981-12-3296-1. (109)^ Victor Mair (May 16, 2022). "Tuoba and Xianbei: Turkic and Mongolic elements of the medieval and contemporary Sinitic states". Language Log. Retrieved 5 April 2024. (110)^ 习近平 (2019-09-27). "在全国民族团结进步表彰大会上的讲话". National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China (in Chinese). Retrieved 5 April 2024.
分立如南北朝,
都自诩中华正统‥对峙如宋辽夏金,都被称为"桃花石"‥统一如秦汉、
隋唐、元明清,更是"六合同风,九州共贯"。(111)^ Samuel E. Martin, Dagur Mongolian Grammar, Texts, and Lexicon, Indiana University Publications Uralic and Altaic Series, Vol. 4, 1961 (112)^ Donn F. Draeger; Robert W. Smith (1980). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha International. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-87011-436-6. (113)^ Yule (2005), p. 177 (114)^ Tan Koon San (15 August 2014). Dynastic China: An Elementary History. The Other Press. p. 247. ISBN 9789839541885. (115)^ Yule (2005), p. 165 (116)^ 唐, 淑芬; 杨, 洋, eds. (2006). "VII、邮政". 中国手语日常会话 (in Chinese). 北京: 华夏出版社. p. 88. ISBN 9787508038247. (117)^ "China". ASL Sign Language Dictionary. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 10 January 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (118)^ Bailey, Carole Sue; Dolby, Kathy, eds. (27 June 2002). "Geographic Place Names". The Canadian Dictionary of ASL. Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Press, The Canadian Cultural Society of the Deaf. p. lxxx. ISBN 0-88864-300-4. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (119)^ Vicars, William G. "CHINA". American Sign Language University. Sacramento, California. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (120)^ Tennant, Richard A.; Gluszak Brown, Marianne (1998). The American Sign Language Handshape Dictionary (1st ed.). Washington, DC: Clerc Books, Gallaudet University Press. pp. 126, 311. ISBN 978-1-56368-043-4. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (121)^ "🇺🇸 China 🇪🇪 Hiina". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (122)^ "🇺🇸 China 🇫🇷 Chine". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (123)^ מנשה, דבי (22 August 2020). "ארצות / מדינות העולם בשפת הסימנים הישראלית". YouTube (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2 October 2023. (124)^ "🇺🇸 China". Spread the Sign. European Sign Language Center. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2023. (125)^ "China 中國". LSD Visual Sign Language Dictionary. Sign Assisted Instruction Programme. (126)^ "Mainland China". TSL Online Dictionary. The Taiwan Center for Sign Linguistics, National Chung Cheng University. Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
Sources[edit]
- Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2011). Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979212-2. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Dvořák, Rudolf (1895). Chinas religionen ... (in German). Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). ISBN 0-19-979205-4. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 1-134-36222-6. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4684-2. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.). Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache (in German). Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05528-4. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Esherick, Joseph (2006). "How the Qing Became China". Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Perdue, Peter C. (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04202-5. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Wade, Geoff (May 2009). "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China'" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 188. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2012), Chinese History: A New Manual, Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute
- Wilkinson, Endymion (2015). Chinese History: A New Manual, 4th edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center distributed by Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-08846-7.
- Wu, Shuhui (1995). Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao (in German). Vol. 2 of Tunguso Sibirica (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-03756-3. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Yule, Henry (2005) [1915]. Cordier, Henri (ed.). Cathay and the Way Thither. ISBN 8120619668.
- Zhao, Gang (2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century". Modern China. 32 (1). Sage Publications: 3–30. doi:10.1177/0097700405282349. JSTOR 20062627. S2CID 144587815.