Baluan-Pam language: Difference between revisions

{{Short description|Oceanic language of Manus Province, Papua New Guinea}}

|nativename = {{lang|blq|Paluai}}

|ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www-01.sil.org/pacific/png/maps/Manus_small.jpg|title = Manus Language Map|access-date = 2015-01-12|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101210/http://www-01.sil.org/pacific/png/maps/Manus_small.jpg|archive-date = 2016-03-04|url-status = dead}}</ref>

|glottorefname=Paluai

'''Baluan-Pam''' is an [[Oceanic language]] of [[Manus Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]]. It is spoken on [[Baluan Island]] and on nearby [[Pam Islands|Pam Island]]. The number of speakers, according to the latest estimate based on the 2000 Census, is 2,000. Speakers on Baluan Island prefer to refer to their language with its native name {{lang|blq|Paluai}}.

The language is of the [[Agglutinative language|agglutinating]] type with comparatively little productive [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]. Basic [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituent]] order is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO).

[[File:Baluan bush house.JPG|thumb|Bush material house]]

In Manus Province, about 32 languages are spoken, all of which belong to the [[Admiralties]] branch, a higher-order subgroup of [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]], which belongs to the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] branch of [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]. Most of the languages of Manus Province are scarcely documented. A reference grammar of [[Loniu language|Loniu]] was published in 1994.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/145798/1/PL-C103.pdf |title=A grammar and lexicon of Loniu, Papua New Guinea |last=Hamel |first=Patricia J. |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=1994 |isbn=0-85883-410-3 |series=Series C - 103 |location=Canberra |doi=10.15144/pl-c103}}</ref>

[[File:Bride price.JPG|thumb|Yams exchanged at bride price]]

{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center

!colspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]

![[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]

!colspan=2|[[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]

![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]

|style=border-right:0|{{IPA link|m}}||style=border-left:0|{{IPA link|mʷ}}

|{{IPA link|n}}

|style=border-right:0|{{IPA link|ŋ}}||style=border-left:0|

![[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]

|style=border-right:0|{{IPA link|p}}||style=border-left:0|{{IPA link|pʷ}}

|{{IPA link|t}}

|style=border-right:0|{{IPA link|k}}||style=border-left:0|({{IPA link|kʷ}})

![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]

|colspan=2|

|{{IPA link|s}}

|style=border-right:0|({{IPA link|h}})||style=border-left:0|

![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]

|colspan=2|

|{{IPA link|l}}

|style=border-right:0|({{IPA link|j}})||style=border-left:0|({{IPA link|w}})

![[Vibrant consonant|Vibrant]]

|colspan=2|

|({{IPA link|ɾ}}~{{IPA link|r}})

|colspan=2|

In contrast to many of the [[Manus languages]], there are no [[bilabial trill]] or [[Prenasalized consonant|prenasalised]] consonants. The consonant inventory is rather simple, with a labialised nasal and plosive in addition to bilabial, apico-alveolar and dorso-velar stops and nasals. There is just one fricative, {{IPA|/s/}}, with {{IPA|/h/}} being a very marginal phoneme. {{IPA|/t/}} has a tap or trill as a variant. The glides {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} are analysed as non-syllabic variants of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}, respectively.<ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 20</ref>

The vowels of Baluan-Pam are {{IPA|/i, e, ɛ, ɐ, ɔ, o, u/}}.

The vowel inventory consists of the standard five vowels most common in Oceanic languages,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Oceanic languages|last1 = Lynch|first1 = John|publisher = Curzon|year = 2002|location = Richmond, Surrey|last2 = Ross|first2 = Malcolm|last3 = Crowley|first3 = Terry}}</ref> with two additional segments: open-mid {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, which are much more frequently occurring. For younger speakers, {{IPA|/e/}} appears to be merging with {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} appears to be merging with {{IPA|/u/}}.

The [[syllable]] template is (C)V(C). Not many syllables start with a vowel. Due to loss of word-final consonants and consequently vowels, which is a feature of eastern Admiralties languages,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Austronesian languages|last = Blust|first = Robert|publisher = Pacific Linguistics|year = 2009|location = Canberra}}</ref> the language allows consonants in the syllable coda and has many monosyllabic words with CVC form.

The two major [[Open word class|open]] word classes are [[noun]] and [[verb]] (with a major subclass of stative verbs), with [[adjectives]] and [[adverbs]] as minor classes distinguished from both noun and verb and from each other. Verb to noun and verb to adjective derivations are very common, but not vice versa. Most [[Predicate (grammar)|predicates]] are headed by a verb complex, but nouns, adjectives, [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] and some [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]] can also function as predicate head. Only verbs, however, can take bound [[pronouns]] and be modified by [[tense–aspect–mood]] (TAM) particles.

== Grammar ==<!-- Needs glosses templates -->

[[File:Coconut ladle.JPG|thumb|Ladle made from coconut shell]]

The language does not have [[Grammatical case|case]] or number marking on nouns. The only nominal morphology in the language functions to indicate possession. A distinction is made within nominal possessive constructions between direct and indirect possession. This correlates with, but does not coincide completely with, a [[semantic]] distinction between [[Inalienable possession|inalienable]] and alienable possession. With direct possession, a [[suffix]] indicating person and number of the possessor is added directly to the noun stem. With indirect possession, this suffix is added to a postposed possessive particle {{lang|blq|ta-}}. Most kinship terms and body part terms either can or must be used in a direct possessive construction. In addition, spatial nouns, referring to concepts such as "inside", "on top of" and "behind", are obligatorily used in a direct possessive construction.

Verbal derivational morphology is limited to the [[causative]] prefix {{lang|blq|pe-}}, the [[Applicative voice|applicative]] suffix {{lang|blq|-ek}}, and [[reduplication]].

The causative {{lang|blq|pe-}} makes transitive an [[Transitivity (grammar)|intransitive]] verb. Causatives can be productively formed, but only with stative verbs. A causative adds an extra "causer" A argument, demoting the original S argument of the intransitive verb to O position. Examples are {{lang|blq|mat}} 'die, be dead' → {{lang|blq|pemat}} 'kill'.

:(1) {{lang|blq|ope lêp suep a ope yilek ponat}}

::'You will take a hoe and you will dig the ground with it.' [lit. 'dig-with (it) the ground']

=== Demonstratives ===

{| class="wikitable"

! colspan="2" |Abbreviations used in this section:

|-

|3

|Third Person

|-

|DEM

|Demonstrative

|-

|DIST

|Distal

|-

|EMP

|Emphatic Marker

|-

|INT

|Intermediate

|-

|PROX

|Proximate

|-

|sg

|Singular

|}

[[Demonstrative]]s in Paluai utilise a three-way distinction pattern based upon person (near speaker, near addressee or neither) or relative distance (close, intermediate, distant).<ref name=":0" />

These three distinctions can be defined as 1. position at or very close to the [[Deixis|deictic]] centre, proximate 2. an intermediate position, and 3. a position considered to be significant distance from the deictic centre.<ref name=":1">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 148</ref>

Here the [[Deixis|deictic]] centre refers to the speaker.

When considering discourse deixis, demonstratives will function as anaphors (referring to previously mentioned information) or cataphors (referring forward).<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 147</ref>

Basic forms as well as forms prefixed by {{lang|blq|te-}} that are either proximate or distal are usually [[Cataphora|cataphors]]. Meanwhile, forms beginning with {{lang|blq|ta-}} are often used as [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphors]], in addition to all intermediate forms despite prefixes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 447</ref>

==== Demonstratives: basic forms ====

==== Three basic forms ====

{{lang|blq|Pwo:}} '''proximate''', 'this'

{{lang|blq|Yo:}} '''intermediate''', 'that'

{{lang|blq|Lo:}} '''distal''' 'that (far)'<ref name=":1" />

The above three demonstratives are often used to modify [[pronoun]]s as seen in examples 1–2.

'''''1. {{lang|blq|Pwo}}'''''

Proximate demonstrative: Situational deictic use of {{lang|blq|pwo}}. Can mean 'this'.<ref name=":3">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 149</ref>

{{lang|blq|i pwo, moni reo pepa sangal}}

{{lang|blq|yi '''pwo''' moni teyo pepa sangal}}

3sg '''DEM.PROX''' money DEM ten.kina ten

'Here. The money is one hundred kina'

'''''2. {{lang|blq|Yo}}'''''

Intermediate demonstrative: Discourse deictic use of {{lang|blq|yo}}. Can mean 'that'<ref name=":3" />

Example of anaphor – refers to previously mentioned discourse<ref name=":4">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 448</ref>

{{lang|blq|i o. naman kamou rang teo inêm}}

{{lang|blq|yi '''yo''' naman kamou tang teyo yinêm}}

3sg '''DEM.INT''' perhaps speech my DEM be finished

'That's it. Perhaps my talk is finished'

It is unusual for either three of the basic demonstrative forms to modify nouns and it is also uncommon that the distal form {{lang|blq|lo}} is used in discourse, rather used to indicate to a distant object.<ref name=":3" />

==== Demonstratives: the formative {{lang|blq|te-}} ====

Forms {{lang|blq|tepwo}}, {{lang|blq|teyp}} and {{lang|blq|telo}} have the ability to modify both nouns and pronouns and are more common in the Paluai language than basic forms of demonstratives.<ref name=":3" />

{{lang|blq|Te-}} is classed as an emphatic marker and is used in conjunction with the basic demonstrative form.<ref name=":3" />

Since forms with {{lang|blq|te-}} must always modify either a noun or a pronoun, they cannot occur independently.<ref name=":5">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 151</ref>

Examples 3–5 show use of each demonstrative form with formative {{lang|blq|te-}}

'''''3. {{lang|blq|Tepwo}}'''''

Proximate demonstrative. Refers to place and time, can mean 'this', 'here' and 'now'<ref name=":3" />

Example of cataphor – refers forward<ref name=":2" />

{{lang|blq|On pwa mun tepwo iro Paluai}}

{{lang|blq|Woan pwa min '''te-pwo''' yito Paluai}}

2sg think banana '''EMP-DEM.PROX''' be Paluai

'Do you think this kind of banana grows on Baluan?'<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 150</ref>

'''''4. {{lang|blq|Teyo}}'''''

Intermediate demonstrative. Used to indicate definiteness 'those'<ref name=":5" />

Example of anaphor, refers to previously mentioned discourse.<ref name=":4" />

{{lang|blq|Mun teo i makerin sip pwên}}

{{lang|blq|Mun '''teyo''' yi makerin sip pwên}}

Banana '''EMP-DEM.INT''' 3sg Negation.bunch one negation.

'Those bananas, they are not in a bunch'

'''''4b. Unusual case – {{lang|blq|teyo}}'''''

Intermediate demonstrative teyo in this situation is not an anaphor, new participant is mentioned for the first time, not referring to previously mentioned participants.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 449</ref>

{{lang|blq|Te yoy reo, yamat te I pari ai pusungop turê tepwo mqanen teo ipwak ai}}

Line 1. {{lang|blq|Te yoy teyo yamat te yi pari ayi pusungop}}

Sub stone EMP-DEM.INT person relative.3sg. belong at clan

Line 2. {{lang|blq|taurê tepwo mwanenen '''teyo''' yipwak ayi}}

Possessive EMP-DEM.PROX straight '''EMP-DEM.INT''' meet at

'As for these stones, this person who is straight from our clan encountered them'

'''''5. {{lang|blq|Telo}}'''''

Distal demonstrative. Can mean 'those (far)'<ref name=":5" />

Example of cataphor – refers forward<ref name=":2" />

{{lang|blq|Kei reywei relo ila ro monokinirê}}

{{lang|blq|Kei tayuei '''telo''' yila to monokinirê}}

Tree two.far '''EMP-DEM.DIST''' go.to be behind

'Those two trees are behind them'

==== Demonstratives: spatial deictics with {{lang|blq|a-}} ====

Another set of demonstratives is formed by prefixing emplatic particle {{lang|blq|te-}} with preposition {{lang|blq|a-}} to form a spatial adverbial demonstrative of which has the ability to modify [[verb]]s only.

{{lang|blq|Atepwo}}, {{lang|blq|ateyo}} and {{lang|blq|atelo}} refer to the location where the activity described by verb is held.<ref name=":5" />

'''''6. {{lang|blq|Atepwo}}'''''

Proximate demonstrative. Can mean 'here'<ref name=":5" />

{{lang|blq|Wosa yen arepwo pwên}}

{{lang|blq|Wosa yen '''atepwo''' pwên}}

2sg lie '''at-EMP-DEM.PROX''' negation

'You cannot lie here'

'''''7. {{lang|blq|Ateyo}}'''''

Intermediate demonstrative. Can mean 'there'<ref name=":5" />

{{lang|blq|Wuisot kunawayut areo}}

{{lang|blq|Wuisot kunawayut '''ateyo'''}}

Go.up take.rest '''at-EMP-DEM.INT'''

'We went up to take a rest there'

'''''8. {{lang|blq|Atelo}}'''''

Distal demonstrative. Can mean 'there (far)'<ref name=":6">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 152</ref>

{{lang|blq|Ola lêp kong payanpôl sip te ila ro arelo me}}

{{lang|blq|Wola lêp kang payanpôl sip te yila to '''atelo''' me}}

Go.to take food dry.coconut one go.to be '''at-EMP-DEM.DIST'''    come

'You go and take my coconut (for me to eat) that is over there, and bring it here'

==== Demonstrative: free forms with {{lang|blq|ta-}} ====

This complex demonstrative uses formative {{lang|blq|ta-}}, the emphatic particle {{lang|blq|te-}} and a basic form of demonstrative. In comparison to the earlier mentioned demonstrative forms, free forms with {{lang|blq|ta-}} often have an element of definiteness when referring to a subject/object.<ref name=":7">{{Cite thesis|last=Schokkin|first=Dineke|title=A grammar of Paluai, the language of Baluan Island, Papua New Guinea|date=2014|degree=PhD|publisher=James Cook University|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28026/}} p. 153</ref> It is the one form of demonstrative that can be used independently and can therefore substitute the place of a noun and be the subject or object to a verb in noun phrases. Three forms with formative {{lang|blq|ta-}} include {{lang|blq|tatepwo}}, {{lang|blq|tateyo}} and {{lang|blq|tatelo}}. Here the proximate and distal demonstrative function as [[verbless clause]] subject, whilst the intermediate demonstrative functions as a transitive object.<ref name=":6" />

'''''9. {{lang|blq|Tatepwo}}'''''

Proximate demonstrative. Can mean 'this' with reference to specific subject or object<ref name=":6" />

{{lang|blq|Nulik, tarepwo ran sê}}

{{lang|blq|Nulik '''tatepwo''' tan sê}}

Nulik '''DEF-EMP-DEM.PROX''' possessive who

'Nulik, whose is this?'

'''''10. {{lang|blq|Tateyo}}'''''

Intermediate demonstrative. Can mean 'that', as in previously discussed subject/object<ref name=":6" />

{{lang|blq|Irouek nêm tareo la ran pein teo}}

{{lang|blq|Yitouek nêm '''tateyo''' la tan pein teyo}}

Show be '''DEF-EMP-DEM.INT''' go.to possessive woman.      EMP-DEM.INT

'She showed all that [what has been talked about just before] to the woman'

'''''11. {{lang|blq|Tatelo}}'''''

Distal demonstrative. Can mean 'those', as in pointing out a specific subject/object<ref name=":7" />

{{lang|blq|Tarelo yeuyeu}}

{{lang|blq|'''Tatelo''' yeuyeu}}

'''DEF-EMP-DEM.DIST''' star

'Those are stars'

== Pronouns ==

=== Paradigms ===

There are four pronominal paradigms: free subject forms, bound subject forms, object forms and possessive forms. They are formally very similar. Pronouns distinguish singular, dual, paucal and plural number, and have a [[clusivity]] distinction. Dual refers to two entities, paucal refers to a few (any number between three and about ten), and plural refers to many. Inclusive pronouns include the addressee ('we, including you'), whereas exclusive ones exclude them ('we, but not you'). Below, the paradigm for the free forms is given.

{| class="wikitable"

!

!

!First person

!Second person

!Third person

|-

|Singular

|

|{{lang|blq|wong}}

|{{lang|blq|wo}}

|{{lang|blq|yi}}

|-

|Dual

|Inclusive

|{{lang|blq|tau}}

|{{lang|blq|au}}

|{{lang|blq|u}}

|-

|

|Exclusive

|{{lang|blq|wui}}

|

|

|-

|Paucal

|Inclusive

|{{lang|blq|tare}}

|{{lang|blq|are}}

|{{lang|blq|ire}}

|-

|

|Exclusive

|{{lang|blq|wure}}

|

|

|-

|Plural

|Inclusive

|{{lang|blq|tap}}

|{{lang|blq|ap}}

|{{lang|blq|ip}}

|-

|

|Exclusive

|{{lang|blq|ep}}

|

|

|}

[[File:Sailing outrigger canoe.JPG|thumb|Navigating the outrigger canoe]]

The language has a system of [[Directionality (grammar)|directionals]] composed of ten members, eight of which are specified with regard to an absolute [[Linguistic frame of reference|frame of reference]] (FoR).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Space in language and cognition: explorations in cognitive diversity|last = Levinson|first = Stephen C.|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2003|location = Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Grammars of space: explorations in cognitive diversity|last1 = Levinson|first1 = Stephen C.|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2006|location = Cambridge|last2 = Wilkins|first2 = David}}</ref> An absolute FoR is based on fixed bearings, such as where the sun rises or sets or wind directions. In Baluan-Pam the FoR is based on a land-sea axis; a distinction is made between 1) seaward movement, 2) landward movement, and 3) movement parallel to the shore. Therefore, going inland always means going up, and going towards the shore always means going down. In addition, since motion parallel to the shore (i.e. intersecting the land–sea axis) usually means moving on more or less the same level, this has obtained a secondary meaning of 'moving on a horizontal level'. At sea, the system is extrapolated: thus, for moving towards the shore the same directionals are used as for moving inland, and for moving out to sea the same directionals are used as for moving towards the shore when on land.

|{{lang|blq|suwot}}

|{{lang|blq|sot}}

|{{lang|blq|wot}}

|{{lang|blq|la}}, {{lang|blq|lak}}

|{{lang|blq|si}}

|{{lang|blq|sa}}, {{lang|blq|sak}}

|{{lang|blq|me}}

|{{lang|blq|suwen}}

|{{lang|blq|sen}}

|{{lang|blq|wen}}

The deixis distinction cross-cuts with the FoR distinction, so that five terms are specified for FoR and for deixis, three are specified for FoR only, and two are specified for deixis but not FoR. There is no dedicated term for motion toward the deictic centre parallel to the shore, and no unspecified term that is not deictically anchored (such a term would not add any information to a lexical verb of motion).

=== Use of directionals ===

The directional paradigm provides a very precise reference structure with ample use in discourse. For virtually all actions that in some sense involve motion (including perception-based actions such as seeing/looking, speaking or listening), the direction of the action has to be specified with a directional. In Paluai, this is done by a [[serial verb construction]] (SVC), in which a directional either precedes or follows the main verb. Directional SVCs are a common feature of Oceanic languages.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Serial verbs in Oceanic: a descriptive typology|last = Crowley|first = Terry|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2002|location = Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Verb serialization and "verbal-prepositions" in Oceanic languages|last = Durie|first = M.|date = 1988|journal = Oceanic Linguistics|doi = 10.2307/3623147|issue = 1/2|pages = 1–23 |volume=27|jstor = 3623147}}</ref>

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Admiralty Islands languages}}

{{Austronesian languages}}

[[Category:Society of Papua New Guinea]]

[[Category:Languages of Manus Province]]